WHITE-TAILED DEER: CHARACTERISTICS, HABITAT, REPRODUCTION, FEEDING - BIOLOGY - 2025

The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is a placental mammal that belongs to the Cervidae family. Although their coat varies according to the seasons and geographic location, it is generally reddish brown during the summer and gray in the winter.

On this tonality, its light belly and its tail stand out, which is white at the back. Faced with a threatening situation, the animal lifts it, producing a luminous flash. This serves as an alarm signal for the other members of the group.

Whitetail deer. Source: Rafael Mauricio Marrero Reiley. Own authorship.

The male has two antlers, which detach and come out again. These bony structures are covered with a soft velvety fur and are highly vascular. They are formed by a central axis, which branches, and can measure between 8 and 64 centimeters.

This species has a dichromatic vision, with yellow and blue primaries. Therefore, they do not distinguish well between red and orange tones. Despite having excellent eyesight and hearing, they rely primarily on the sense of smell to detect danger signs.

White-tailed deer are generally considered solitary, especially in summer. These have many forms of communication that involve sounds, smells, body language, and markings.

Migrations

The white-tailed deer could inhabit the same range all year round or migrate during winter or summer-fall. Those who migrate generally live in the north and in mountainous areas.

The Odocoileus virginianus exhibits diverse types of migratory strategies. Some can remain resident all year round, thus forming a non-migrant population. Also, it could be a forced migrant, who usually travels to other regions on an annual basis.

Likewise, he could emigrate annually alternately, becoming a conditional migrant. However, in the same population there may be non-migratory and migratory groups.

Thus, in an agricultural area of ​​Minnesota, 15% of the females were non-migratory, 35% migrated conditionally and 43% did so obligatorily.

Migration that occurs between the winter and summer ranges is usually more pronounced when there are well-marked differences in seasonal weather patterns.

For example, in northern regions, this species migrates during the winter to avoid snowfall and low temperatures. In the summer, when forage is available again, they return.

characteristics

Whitetail deer. Source: Rafael Mauricio Marrero Reiley. Own authorship.

Size

The size of the white-tailed deer is variable, generally those that live in the north are larger than those that live in the south.

Thus, the male that is located in North America weighs from 68 to 136 kilograms, although it could reach up to 180 kilograms. As for the female, her weight can be between 40 and 90 kilograms.

The white-tailed deer that inhabit the tropics and the Florida Keys have a smaller body. On average, the male weighs 35 to 50 kilograms and the female 25 kilograms.

Those that live in the Andes are larger than the tropical ones, in addition to having thicker skin. Its length varies from 95 to 220 centimeters.

Nutritional status is often related to body and antler development. For example, deer that are distributed in Mississippi have 30-40% more mass than those that live in less fertile areas of Flatwood.

Glands

Odocoileus virginianus has numerous scent glands, whose odors are so strong that they could be detected by man. Thus, it has four main glands: tarsal, preorbital, sweat and metatarsal. In relation to the preorbitals, these are in front of the eyes.

The sweatpants are located between the eyes and the antlers. Its scent is deposited on some branches, when the deer rubs them. As for the tarsals, they are located in the upper internal area of ​​the middle joint of each hind leg.

The chemical substance contained in these glands is excreted while the animal is walking and rubs them against the vegetation. These scratches are used as signposts, which indicate that there are other white-tailed deer in the territory.

In addition, you can know if other animals of the same species are passing through the area, information that they could use for reproductive purposes. The metatarsal glands are located on the outside of each hind leg, between the hooves and the ankle.

These secrete an odorous essence that is used as an alarm signal. If the animal is threatened, it stomps on the ground, leaving an excessive amount of odor, which warns others of danger.

Coloration

The coat of the Odocoileus virginianus has seasonal, local and inter-subspecies variations. However, in general it is reddish brown, during the summer and spring, while in the winter and autumn it turns gray-brown.

Also, it has white hairs, which stand out on the body coloration. Thus, this species is recognized by its white coloration on the underside of the tail, behind the nose, inside the ears and behind the eyes.

Also, a light shade covers part of the chin and throat, as well as the inside of the legs.

Some researchers take the length of the muzzle and the color of the coat as an indicator of the age of this animal. This is because older white-tailed deer tend to have longer snouts and grayer coats.

Antlers

The antlers are present only in males and constitute a central axis with several branches projecting from it. The number of points or branches increases as the animal grows, until it reaches a maximum age of 5 or 6 years.

In the white-tailed deer, these bony structures have a velvety texture and are covered with highly vascularized skin. Unlike the horns, typical of some animals such as cattle, the antlers are shed annually, and then they are born again.

The loss usually occurs between January and March, growing again from April to May. The velvet that uses it is lost in August or September.

Antlers most of the time begin to develop from the first year of life. Such growth is influenced by habitat, genetics, diet, and environmental conditions.

Since antlers, during growth, are composed of 80% protein, a high protein diet is essential. Upon reaching adulthood, the ratio between minerals and proteins equalizes.

As for minerals, phosphorus and calcium are the ones that are mainly present in mature antlers.

Habitat and distribution

The white-tailed deer is a native of North, Central and South America. Thus, in Canada is a large part of the territory, with the exception of Labrador, Newfoundland and Nunavut.

In North America, it lives in the southern Yukon area and in the areas located to the northeast, through the southern provinces of Canada. To the south, it is located throughout the United States. She rarely lives or is completely absent in California, Alaska, Utah, and Nevada.

The Odocoileus virginianus occupies the entire region corresponding to Central America and in South America, it is distributed as far as Bolivia.

This species has been introduced in various countries of the world, among which are New Zealand, Croatia, Serbia and the islands of the Caribbean.

Starting in the second half of the 19th century, the white-tailed deer was brought to Europe. Since 1935, it is part of the exotic fauna of Finland, where it has developed without any inconvenience, From that nation it has spread to northern Scandinavia and southern Karelia. There it competes with native species, being able to displace them occasionally.

Habitat

The white-tailed deer has the ability to adapt to a variety of habitats, thus being able to live from large forests to swamps and mountain ranges. Also, it is found in desolate areas, cactus deserts, farmland, and dense thickets, where it can hide from predators.

Also, it inhabits chaparral forests, wetland swamps and rain forests. However, although it is mainly a forest animal, where it depends on small edges and openings, it can adapt to other more open ecosystems. Such is the case of the savannas and prairies.

The Odocoileus virginianus located in Central America prefers subtropical broadleaf forests, dry tropical forests and savannas. In addition, it lives in the wetlands close to the tropical humid forests and in mixed deciduous forests.

As for the South American subspecies, they are usually distributed in two environments. The former consists of dry deciduous forests, savannas, and riparian corridors in much of Colombia and Venezuela.

The other type corresponds to mountain pastures and mixed forests in the Andean mountain range, from Venezuela to Peru.

State of conservation

Many are the factors that are influencing the decline in the white-tailed deer population. This has caused the IUCN to categorize Odocoileus virginianus within the group that is threatened with extinction.

Although it is not in a vulnerable state, said protectionist organization indicates that, if corrective action is not taken on the threats that afflict it, it could be in serious danger of disappearing.

Threats

The different urban developments and the risks they entail, such as collisions with vehicles, are considered the main threat of the white-tailed deer. In addition, they are exposed to large-scale environmental changes, such as those caused by hurricanes.

Climate change and habitat degradation

Variations in climate have important effects on Odocoileus virginianus. One of these is the redistribution of many plant species. For example, in the United States, the eastern hemlock offers this animal a thermal cover against low temperatures in winter.

But due to the change in climate, this species has declined and will continue to do so, an aspect that affects the survival of the deer.

Another negative consequence is the increase in parasites and diseases. Thus, atmospheric warming could cause the spread of black-legged ticks (Ixodes scapularis). This is the main infectious agent of Lyme disease, which attacks the white-tailed deer, representing a serious danger to its health

Hunting

In the early years of the 20th century, poaching and commercial exploitation caused a significant decline in the population.

In addition, white-tailed deer feed on corn grown in orchards, which is why farmers often hunt them. However, they are also captured and killed as part of a sporting activity, whose main trophy is their antlers.

Regarding the commercialization of the products obtained from Odocoileus virginianus, its meat is a natural source of protein. In this way, it is part of various typical dishes in the regions where it lives.

Collision with vehicles

In several areas where the white-tailed deer is distributed, accidents occur on the roads, while the animal tries to cross them. This usually happens at night and the cases increase during the heat stage.

Actions

In several areas where it lives, its hunting is regulated, to avoid the excessive decline of its population. In addition, some subspecies, such as Odocoileus virginianus mayensis, are on the list of animals included in Appendix III of CITES.

Taxonomy and subspecies

Animal Kingdom.

Subkingdom Bilateria.

Chordate Phylum.

Vertebrate Subfilum.

Tetrapoda superclass

Mammal class.

Subclass Theria.

Infraclass Eutheria.

Order Artiodactyla.

Family Cervidae.

Subfamily Capreolinae.

Genus Odocoileus.

Species Odocoileus virginianus.

Subspecies

Odocoileus virginianus acapulcensis.

Odocoileus virginianus carminis.

Odocoileus virginianus borealis.

Odocoileus virginianus cariacou.

Odocoileus virginianus clavium.

Odocoileus virginianus chiriquensis.

Odocoileus virginianus couesi.

Odocoileus virginianus dacotensis.

Odocoileus virginianus curassavicus.

Odocoileus virginianus goudotii.

Odocoileus virginianus hiltonensis.

Odocoileus virginianus gymnotis.

Odocoileus virginianus leucurus.

Odocoileus virginianus margaritae.

Odocoileus virginianus macrourus.

Odocoileus virginianus mexicanus.

Odocoileus virginianus mcilhennyi

Odocoileus virginianus nelsoni.

Odocoileus virginianus miquihuanensis.

Odocoileus virginianus nigribarbis.

Odocoileus virginianus nemoralis

Odocoileus virginianus oaxacensis.

Odocoileus virginianus osceola.

Odocoileus virginianus rothschildi.

Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus.

Odocoileus virginianus peruvianus.

Odocoileus virginianus rothschildi.

Odocoileus virginianus seminolus.

Odocoileus virginianus taurinsulae.

Odocoileus virginianus rothschildi.

Odocoileus virginianus texanus.

Odocoileus virginianus thomasi.

Odocoileus virginianus tropicalis.

Odocoileus virginianus toltecus.

Odocoileus virginianus veraecrucis.

Odocoileus virginianus ustus.

Odocoileus virginianus venatorius.

Odocoileus virginianus yucatanensis.

Odocoileus virginianus virginianus.

Reproduction

The female white-tailed deer matures at the age of 1.5 years, although some reach their sexual development at 7 months of age. However, mating occurs when both sexes are around 2 years old.

Specialists point out that the sexual maturation of the female is influenced by the availability of food and by population density. Thus, the fawns could mate and reproduce in those environments where there is an abundance of forage.

As for estrus, it lasts from 24 to 48 hours. This species is seasonal polyestric, whose interval, between periods of estrus, varies between 21 and 30 days. During this time, the female can mate with several males, so the young could be from different parents.

Although the Odocoileus virginianus is polygynous, it can form a couple, staying together for days and even weeks, until the female reaches estrus. If they fail to mate, 28 days later a new estrus occurs.

Influences

Estrous generally occurs in autumn, caused by the decline in the photoperiod, a factor to which it is strongly linked. Also, the breeding season is associated with latitude.

In relation to this, in the United States the white-tailed deer that live in the north usually mate in November, while in the south it occurs later, in January or February. However, species that live close to the equator tend to reproduce year-round.

Success in reproduction

The reproductive success of the white-tailed deer depends on a few factors, including habitat conditions, the nutritional status of the mother, the climate, and population density.

An example of this occurs on the Anticosti Island, in Quebec, where navigation and forage during the winter are scarce. In addition, in said season there is a high number of deer in the territory.

Due to these characteristics, the female mates preferably in the autumn and spring climate, since the low winter temperatures decrease food resources and the young can be born very low in weight.

Gestation and birth

Gestation lasts from 187 to 213 days. When the moment of parturition approaches, the female goes to a place separated from the group and lies down in a horizontal position. Delivery usually occurs at night. One or three fawns can be born in each litter.

Breeding

At birth, the male is larger than the female. This weighs from 1.6 to 3.9 kilograms, while the male reaches a weight of 2 to 6.6 kilograms. Daily, the young gain approximately 0.2 kilograms, so their growth is very fast.

At the moment of being born, the baby already walks alone and a few days later, it tries to bite the vegetation to consume it. Male fawns leave their mother after one year of birth, while females generally remain with her.

Feeding

White-tailed deer are opportunistic and consume a wide variety of plants. For example, in Arizona, more than 610 different species are part of their diet. In relation to the parts of the plants that they consume, there are the flowers, the stems, the fruits, the seeds and the bark of the stems.

Thus, within their diet are ferns, fungi, lichens and some aquatic plants. They also eat berries, nuts, drupes, and walnut trees. Occasionally it may eat insects, fish, and some birds.

High nutritional value and easily digestible forages, such as acorn, make up a large part of the food portions of Odocoileus virginianus. Due to this, they are part of the preferred foods, although their availability is seasonal.

Within this group, there are also apples (Malus spp.), Cherries (Prunus spp.), Blackberries (Rubus spp.), Grapes and blueberries.

This species is a ruminant, so its stomach has four chambers. Each of these has a specific function, allowing you to efficiently digest food. The stomach is home to many microbes, which contribute to digestion.

In addition, these microorganisms can vary according to the diet of the deer, thus guaranteeing the degradation of the various types of nutrients.

Behavior

Socially, the white-tailed deer is organized in mixed groups. These consist of a mother, her calf, and her descendants from previous years. The males form groups of singles, which could be made up of 2 or 5 animals.

Generally, the male and female are segregated, although temporary mixed aggregations can occur, especially when food becomes scarce.

Individual family groups can merge, forming larger ones, reaching hundreds of deer. This occurs in the fall and winter, especially in the northern latitudes.

Male white-tailed deer. Source: Rafael Mauricio Marrero Reiley. Own authorship.

Older females dominate in family groups, while singles is led by the largest male. This usually fights with other males to gain access to a female in heat. In this contest, they face each other using their antlers.

The Odocoileus virginianus produces various types of vocalizations, such as hissing and grunting. These, together with the postures, are used to communicate. Thus, the fawns emit a high-pitched screech, which they use to call their mothers.

References

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