BENITO JUÁREZ: BIOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT AND CONTRIBUTIONS - HISTORY - 2024

Benito Juárez (1806-1872) was a Mexican politician and lawyer, president of Mexico from 1858 to 1872, highlighting his performance during the decade of the Reform Laws and the French intervention. Known as the Benemérito de las Américas, he managed to eradicate minority privileges, thus reestablishing Mexican freedom, rights and virtues.

Juárez, a lawyer and politician of indigenous origin, is considered by many to be the most important figure in Mexico, his relevance being such that the date of his birth is considered a national holiday.

Biography

Benito Pablo Juárez García was born on March 21, 1806 in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico, in a town called San Pablo Guelatao, located in the municipality called Santo Tomás Ixtlán. This town was characterized by being small, since only about 20 Zapotec families lived there.

Family

There is little information about the parents of Benito Juárez, but it is known that their names were Brígida García and Marcelino Juárez; These data were obtained from Benito's birth certificate.

In the words of Benito Juárez, his parents were native Indians and they worked the land through agriculture.

In 1809, when Juarez was only 3 years old, both parents died; first his father died and then his mother during the delivery of his younger sister, María Alberta Longinos.

Additionally, Benito had two older sisters named Rosa and Josefa. When their parents died, these three brothers were under the guardianship of their grandparents by their father, named Justa López and Pedro Juárez. For its part, the newborn girl was taken in by a sister of the mother, named Cecilia.

Benito's paternal grandparents died some time later. At that time, both older sisters from Juárez were married, so only Benito remained to be welcomed. It was in this period when Benito went to live with his uncle named Bernardino Juárez.

Stay with Bernardino

Since Benito moved with his uncle Bernardino, he began to herd sheep and work as a farm laborer. His uncle knew the Spanish language quite well and, seeing that Benito became enthusiastic about learning it, he taught him various words and other elements of the language.

In this process of learning Spanish, Benito had two main limitations, which had nothing to do with his ability to learn it.

In the first place, in the town where he was, Spanish was not spoken, so there was not much opportunity to put it into practice and learn it in greater depth.

Secondly, the jobs that Benito was doing were very demanding and time consuming, so he didn't have much opportunity to practice it.

In addition, to this scenario is added the fact that in the town where Benito lived there were no schools of any kind. Only those who could travel to the city were able to learn Spanish and train academically.

According to Benito's observations, these people who managed to travel to the city did so by paying themselves a pension, or by working as domestic staff in the homes of wealthy people.

Benito had many wishes to go to the city, and many times he expressed this concern to his uncle Bernardino, who constantly ignored this interest.

Trip to town

In December 1818 an event occurred that largely determined the future of Benito Juárez.

While in the middle of his work as a shepherd, Benito lost one of these. Some sources report that he was fearful of the punishment that his uncle would impose on him, so he decided to flee.

This happened on December 17, when Benito was 12 years old. Thanks to the assistance of a group of muleteers, he reached the state of Oaxaca.

While there she contacted her sister Josefa, who worked as a cook in the home of a well-off man of foreign origin named Antonio Maza. Benito asked him to stay there and, with Maza's approval, he was welcomed.

At that time Benito only spoke the Zapotec language; He barely had the general and basic knowledge of Spanish, which had been taught to him by his uncle Bernardino.

He immediately began to work on the farm in the home of Antonio Maza, for which he received a salary of 2 reales. In that house he also met the one who later became his wife: Margarita Maza, the adoptive daughter of Antonio Maza.

Influence of Antonio Salanueva

Benito continued working on the Maza farm, and around that same time he met the Franciscan priest named Antonio Salanueva, who dedicated himself to binding and pasting texts. This character agreed to admit Benito as a bookbinder's apprentice.

Only 21 days passed after this meeting, when Benito Juárez was admitted to Salanueva's house, as well as his workshop. This happened on January 7, 1819. Likewise, the priest gave him the option of taking him to school and was his godfather in the sacrament of confirmation.

Later on, Benito Juárez described this priest as a man who was interested in giving children and young people access to education.

Many times Salanueva tried to convince him to become a priest, because according to Salanueva's point of view, the priesthood was one of the best futures to which a young man of limited resources and Indian roots could aspire.

Salanueva taught Juárez to write and read in Spanish, focusing especially on religious doctrine.

The Royal School

Benito started attending a school, although soon after he decided to change because he himself felt that his learning was stagnant and he was not progressing as fast as he wanted. Then, he attended La Escuela Real, an institution where he had José Domingo González as a teacher.

Upon arriving at this school, he was rebuked by his teacher about the type of scale on which he was based to write. He replied that in the fourth and González sent him an assignment.

Benito's homework was poorly done, with many vices and mistakes as a result of not having learned Spanish correctly. When González saw her, he decided to scold him strongly and punish him, instead of explaining what his mistakes had been.

This situation is situated in a particular context, and it is that La Escuela Real was characterized by being very racist; well-to-do youth received important academic benefits and considerations, as well as much more complete training.

In contrast, young Indians or poor people received directions from second-class teachers, not really interested in teaching them, but with arrogant and disrespectful attitudes.

After this expletive committed by José Domingo González, Juárez decided to leave La Escuela Real and start training by his own methods.

Studies at the seminary

Benito Juárez was determined to get quality training, so he began to measure what his chances were. Analyzing the different scenarios, he realized that the young people who studied at the seminary received a lot of respect from other people.

So, he decided to enter as an external student -because he never intended to be a priest- in the Santa Clara seminary.

This was the only institution with secondary education that was present in the state of Oaxaca. Benito formalized his entry into this seminary on October 18, 1821, the year in which Mexico became an independent nation.

That same month Benito began to study Latin; later, in 1824, he enrolled in a philosophy course. He finished both studies in 1827 and his grades were outstanding.

This is how Benito continued, obtaining excellent grades in all the courses in which he enrolled. In August 1824 he received a remarkable grade in a Latin grammar exam and a year later, on August 1, 1825, he took the final exam for the first year of philosophy, which he did so well that he was even awarded the possibility of direct a public event.

In 1827 Benito Juárez began to study theology. While in seminary, the only higher career option was the priesthood.

Institute of Sciences and Arts

In 1827 the Liberal Party led the nation and its, in the hands of Valentín Gómez Farías, decreed that in all the states of Mexico there should be an institute of sciences and arts, with the intention of being able to teach the liberal doctrine to young people.

That same year the Institute of Sciences and Arts was founded in Oaxaca. Many students were in the same situation as Juárez, since they wanted to train but did not want to be men of the Church.

Then, as soon as the Institute of Arts and Sciences opened, many seminary students dropped out and enrolled in the institute. Benito wanted to do it, but he was considerate of his godfather Salanueva and stayed in the seminary for almost 2 more years.

Finally, in 1828 he convinced Salanueva about his interest in studying at the institute, so that same year he resigned from the seminary and entered the Institute of Sciences and Arts to study jurisprudence.

Frowned upon institute

This stampede of young people from the seminary to the institute was not seen with good eyes by the Church authorities.

In fact, all the young men who left the seminary for the institute were excommunicated, and the center received many insults and expletives from various members of the clergy and the general public.

Liberal training

The Institute of Sciences and Arts was an initiative of the Liberal Party, so the training offered there was liberal. This was very important for Benito, given that he came from a fairly conservative background, and he suddenly began to interact with a liberal environment.

A fundamental part of the motivation of the center was linked to the desire to diversify teaching and avoid that only the clergy had a monopoly on it.

Salanueva knew that Juárez did not want to be a priest, so he agreed with him studying at the institute, but he did tell him that from now on he should support himself on his own.

So, at this time Benito Juárez studied in the mornings, worked in the afternoons and studied at night. In 1834 he obtained his law degree, which was awarded by the Oaxaca State Court of Justice.

Political life

Once he obtained his title as a lawyer, Benito Juárez dedicated himself to defending some disadvantaged indigenous populations, which is why he dedicated himself to traveling a lot from one population to another and from there to Oaxaca.

At this time he perfectly understood texts written in English, French and Latin, and also handled in depth both civil law and canon law.

As of May 1830, Juárez was in charge of the Physics Classroom of the Institute of Sciences and Arts. A year later, in 1831, he became rector of the institute.

At the end of that same year, he received news directly from the Oaxaca City Council, according to which the next state councilor would be him. The period that would correspond to him began on January 1, 1832.

This is how Benito Juárez began his life in politics, deepening his actions later. On August 25, 1832 he was appointed alternate minister in the Court of Justice of the state of Oaxaca.

On February 11, 1833, he became a local deputy, since he was officially appointed as a deputy of the Honorable Legislature of Oaxaca.

Other appointments

After this, Juárez continued to climb positions and receive more appointments. Some of the positions or appointments he received were the following:

-In 1833 he was appointed captain of the fifth company of the First Battalion of the Civic Militia of Oaxaca.

-On February 3, 1834, he was appointed a member of the Oaxaca Health Board.

-A few days later, on February 7, 1834, he was appointed interim minister of the Oaxaca Court of Justice.

-On April 7, 1834, he was part of the Qualifying and Awarding Board, framed in the recognition of the participants of the events that occurred in the fort of Santo Domingo

-Four years later, on April 6, 1838, he was appointed acting secretary of the First Chamber of the Superior Court of Justice of Oaxaca

-At the end of 1839, he was appointed alternate minister of the Superior Court of Justice, a position that he repeated a year later, in 1840.

-In July 1841 he obtained a judge's office in the civil sphere in Oaxaca.

-On October 3, 1843, he was appointed second alternate member of the Electoral Board.

-In the year 1853 he received another office, in this case as a substitute professor in the field of Civil Law taught at the Oaxaca Institute of Arts and Sciences.

-Five years later, on September 30, 1858, he was appointed honorary member of the Mexican Dramatic Conservatory

In 1858 Juárez participated together with the liberal Valentín Gómez Farías in an action to remove strength from the clergy, but in 1859 the direction of Mexico became centralist again, so he was forced to flee to Puebla, where he remained for 2 years before return to Oaxaca.

Upon arriving in Oaxaca, Juárez (who was 37 years old) was a judge of first instance and married Margarita Maza (17 years old), the adoptive daughter of Antonio Maza. Prior to this union, Juárez had two children with another woman, children he did not recognize.

Amid very diverse political scenarios, Juárez was governor of Oaxaca and, several years later, president of Mexico for two constitutional terms that spanned from 1858 to 1872.

Death

On January 2, 1871, his wife, Margarita, had died, and this episode greatly affected Juárez. A year later, in July 1872, he began to show symptoms of illness.

The family doctor went to check on him and noticed that he had a low pulse, strong cramps, and a very weak heartbeat. Benito Juárez died on July 18, 1872 as a result of angina pectoris.

Juárez's body was buried and currently rests in the Panteón de San Fernando Museum, located in Mexico City.

government

Benito Juárez was president of Mexico for two constitutional terms. The first period began in 1858, as a result of betrayals of various characters towards Ignacio Comonfort, who gave a self-coup.

Given this context, the government of Juárez could not stay in one place, but moved from city to city, fleeing from members of the federal army and with very few resources to administer.

At the same time as Juárez, Ignacio Comonfort and Félix María Zuloaga, who received the support of the Church and the army, disputed the presidency.

Trip to Guanajuato

In the midst of this situation, Juárez traveled to Guanajuato and made his government official there. At this time he tried to organize what was his government cabinet, which was made up of Manuel Ruiz in the Justice area and Melchor Ocampo in the Relations and War department.

Guillemo Prieto also participated in the Finance Cabinet, Anastasio Parrodi as the main army chief, León Guzmán in the Development area and Santos Degollado as Minister of the Interior.

On January 19, 1858, the first representative act of Juárez as president-elect took place; address the nation through a statement in which he asked the people to support his government, which was the only one with constitutional characteristics.

On February 13 Juárez had to move to Guadalajara as a result of the siege he was being subjected to. He arrived in this city on February 14, 1858 along with his entire cabinet, and the Guadalajara authorities received them, demonstrating their support.

Treason

While they were in Guadalajara, at the Municipal Palace headquarters, an officer came out of the ranks along with other officers and ordered them to shoot him.

Juarez stood before these officers and the head of the Treasury, Guillermo Prieto, stood in front of Juarez, signaling them to shoot him. At this, the officer withdrew the order and left with the others.

Stay in Veracruz

Federal troops continued to pursue Juárez, who had no choice but to leave for Panama, passing through Havana until they reached New Orleans.

Then, on May 4, 1858, he returned to Mexico, specifically to Veracruz. There he was received with admiration and appreciation by both the authorities and the inhabitants. His wife and children were waiting for him at the port.

In Veracruz he stayed for a time. There he received Robert MacLane, ambassador of the United States and decreed the Law of nationalization of ecclesiastical property, according to which it prevented the Catholic Church from having property in Mexican territory.

Special powers

An important characteristic of this period was that Juarez asked Congress for the possibility of having extraordinary powers to be able to fight the military Leonardo Márquez and Félix María Zuloaga, since his government was in a very weak and susceptible position.

In principle, several members of Congress refused, arguing that it was essential to maintain and defend the Constitution as it existed. However, they eventually agreed to give him those powers.

French invasion

In December 1861, Mexico was besieged by Spanish, English and French troops, as a result of a non-payment of large amounts of money.

After negotiations, the English and Spanish troops left Mexican territory, although not the French troops, led by Napoleon III, who was determined to invade Mexico in order to create the Second Mexican Empire.

After suffering a setback in Puebla on May 5, 1862, the French continued the expedition that led them to occupy Mexico City on June 10, 1863. The government of the Republic, led by Juarez, began a pilgrimage since then. through various parts of the country, while the French continued to occupy the capital.

The French troops began to withdraw thanks to the Mexican attacks from 1866, before the imminence of a war between France and Prussia and the defeat of the Confederates in the American Civil War in 1865 that supported Napoleon III at all times.

Between 1863 and 1867 the Second Mexican Empire would take place, with Maximilian of Habsburg as Emperor of Mexico.

The Catholic Church was displeased with the government of Juárez for the reforms previously applied, so they declared in favor of the French.

Government to the North

On May 31, 1863, Juárez left for the north to protect the government and visit different emblematic cities.

He traveled in a caravan in which several of the main ministers also went, as well as important documents that were part of the Mexican registry. This caravan was well guarded by at least 300 soldiers.

The caravan passed through Guanajuato and reached San Luis de Potosí. In the latter city he tried to reestablish the seat of his government.

It is important to point out the context in which the government was at that time: on January 25, 1862, Juárez had decreed a law according to which those who supported the alternate government would be considered traitors, as well as any person who complained in relation to the Reform Laws that the Juárez government was implementing.

Constant transfers

The government of Juárez continued in motion, trying to protect itself from the French. He passed first through Monterrey and then through Saltillo. Maximiliano de Habsburgo addressed Juárez through a letter, in which he told him that he was invited to be part of the government of the empire.

On March 1, 1864, Benito Juárez responded to Maximiliano by refusing to participate in his government, and accusing him of being an accomplice in the conquering plans of Napoleon III.

After this interaction, Juárez and his government moved to different cities in the state of Coahuila. In the town of Gatuño, he ordered to hide the nation's archives.

From there the government moved to Durango. On September 15, 1864, they reached the small town of Cuatillos, where Juárez reaffirmed the independence of Mexico with his famous cry.

While Juárez continued to move in the state of Durango, Maximiliano and his wife had arrived in Mexico City, after a tour of several European countries.

New seat of government

In that same year Benito Juárez traveled to Chihuahua with some of his ministers, where they tried to install the government headquarters again.

In those years, one of his children died, who was with the rest of his brothers and his mother in the United States. This was devastating for Juárez, who, however, a week after hearing the news, was again fulfilling his role.

In the midst of this context, Maximiliano declared to Napoleon III that Mexico was practically controlled, and that only the opposite focus remained in Chihuahua, which would soon be controlled as well.

Given this news, Napoleon III decided to withdraw a large part of the troops, since this movement was very costly. Later it was confirmed that, eventually, this retreat was useful to achieve the triumph between October 1866 and January 1867, the year in which the emperor decided that he would not abdicate and was executed.

Attack in Chihuahua

French troops attacked Chihuahua. Prior to this attack, Juárez had ordered the destruction of the most important files, with more sensitive information related to the nation, so that it would not fall into the hands of the invaders.

The attack was carried out in May 1865. The fight was arduous, but the French were finally victorious. In the midst of the conflict, both Juárez and the members of his cabinet had been successfully evacuated, so they were not arrested, but went to Villa Paso del Norte, the same in the state of Chihuahua.

The place where Juárez and his government settled was an abandoned space, full of weeds and snakes; the options were to hide there or flee to the United States, which Juárez considered propitious.

So they settled there, and when the French arrived they were told that Juárez and his government team had crossed the border, which is why the contest was considered over.

This information was what reached Mexico City, when really Juárez and his cabinet had established themselves in Villa Paso del Norte. This became official on August 14, 1865.

Later there were several attempts by the Republicans to take the city of Chihuahua again, although they were sterile.

Finally, on March 25, 1866, the Republicans recovered the city of Chihuahua, after a confrontation led on the Mexican side by General Luis Terrazas Fuentes.

Progressive advances

Progressively, the republicans were advancing more and more, until arriving at the state of Durango. In the midst of this context, the clergy had withdrawn their support for Maximilian I since he had not rejected the Laws of the Reformation, which were counterproductive for the Church.

Likewise, France had killed a large part of its troops, and those that remained in Mexico had the withdrawal deadline in the first months of 1867.

Many countries supported Juárez and his government, and in this scenario it was decreed that, given the war period, his period of government would be extended until Mexico was once again a republican country and presidential elections were called.

Throughout the country, the followers of Juárez and his government were mobilizing, and they were gaining more space. In view of the recovering power, Juárez decided to move his cabinet to the state of Durango in 1867.

Prior to this, in 1866 Maximiliano had already considered abdicating, but a retinue organized by Father Agustín Fischer convinced him otherwise.

Matamoros Recovery

Parallel to the above, the liberal republicans proposed the taking of the city of Matamoros, which was the only space that was still occupied by forces of the Empire.

After a strategic struggle, the city was in the hands of the Liberals, a victory that implied that the entire northern region of Mexico was republican.

Maximiliano continued to doubt whether to abdicate or not, and received instructions even from his mother, exhorting him not to abdicate.

The Juarez government, which was in Zacatecas, moved to San Luis Potosí, while Maximiliano had left Mexico City and headed for Querétaro along with a contingent.

Surrender of Maximilian

Finally, Maximiliano I decided to surrender, and sent his conditions to Juárez through an emissary.

Among the conditions laid down was that he be granted a safe-conduct to withdraw from the Mexican nation, to which he would never return, and that the members of the troops see their lives and property respected.

Juárez received this communication and responded by offering only the possibility of unconditional surrender.

The emissary of the Empire involved in these communications was instigated by General Mariano Escobedo to betray and deliver the emperor, which would cause his life and that of other officials of the Empire to be spared; this emissary accepted.

Through actions carried out with this emissary, Maximilian was captured. At that time Maximiliano continued to ask for mercy for his troops and argued that, if necessary, they would only assassinate him.

On the advice of politician Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, Juárez created a military tribunal through which Maximiliano and two of his main generals would be tried. The court determined that the three should be shot to death.

Various personalities around the world asked Juárez not to carry out this sentence. However, the execution of the three characters of the Empire was finally carried out, on June 19, 1867.

Return to Mexico City

After the execution of Maximiliano I, Benito Juárez began his transfer to Mexico City. He arrived in this city on July 15, 1867 after making several stops at symbolic sites for the fight for the consolidation of his government.

At this time, Juárez also promoted the reconciliation of the people, as he ordered the release of the detainees who had given their support to Maximiliano and his Empire.

Among the first actions of Juárez was to raise the call for elections, to legitimize his government. These elections were called by Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, and on January 16, 1868, Juárez was elected constitutional president of Mexico.

Second presidency

This second period is considered much quieter than the previous one, as there was a little more political stability.

One of the strong points of this period was the promotion of the educational and industrial fields. The Juarez government built many schools around the country, and the intention was that lay education be free.

Likewise, a great literacy plan was carried out and the foreign debt was negotiated with several nations (among which was England).

However, the unstable context reappeared in this period, as some actions by Juárez, such as demolishing several temples in the city, among which there were some that were used by conspirators, made it less popular.

During 1868 and 1869 various uprisings were carried out against Juárez, as well as outbreaks of corruption and embezzlement of funds.

Elections of 1871

Juárez appeared for the 1871 elections, in which he participated against Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada and Porfirio Díaz. Juárez was the winner, although fraud was reported in the elections.

Faced with these claims, Porfirio Díaz took advantage of the opportunity and proclaimed the famous Plan de la Noria, through which he called to ignore the government of Juárez, arguing that a president should not be reelected.

The different altercations were resolved by the government, but they were an unequivocal reflection of the great instability that existed in the government, which deepened after the death of Juárez.

Contributions

The Ayutla Plan

When the US army invaded the national territory, President Antonio López de Santa Anna sought refuge in Oaxaca.

Juárez, being governor, denied him access, so when he returned to the presidency after the war, Santa Anna ordered his exile. Juárez arrived in New Orleans, where he was in contact with other exiles such as Melchor Ocampo, with whom he shared liberal ideals.

The Ayutla Plan was formed in 1854, with which Santa Anna was overthrown and the new president, Juan Álvarez, appointed Juárez minister of justice and later promoted to judge of the Supreme Court of Justice.

In this position, Benito promoted the so-called Juárez Law, which abolished the special courts for clergy and military, thus denying them the jurisdiction.

Similarly, with their support, a new liberal federal constitution was approved in 1857, which sought to consolidate Mexico as a secular, modern and progressive state.

The Three Years' War

In December 1857, the conservatives, in an attempt to overthrow the new Constitution, planned a coup called the Plan of Tacubaya, to which President Ignacio Comonfort himself joined in a self-coup.

The law then ordered the president of the Supreme Court to take power, so Benito Juárez became president in 1858.

The conservatives, for their part, anointed Félix María Zuloaga as president. This would unleash the Three Year War.

During this time, the presidency of Juárez had to be decentralized and established in different parts of the country. In 1859, from the port of Veracruz, President Juárez issued the package of Reform Laws, whose essential purpose was to separate the church from the State.

The Laws of Reform

Until then, Mexico was heir to colonial customs. The clergy and the military intervened in civil affairs and the Catholic Church was in a privileged position.

In liberal attempts to modernize the nation, implement freedom of worship, wide access to education, and the cessation of privileges from some institutions, the Reform Laws were enacted.

One of them, the law of nationalization of ecclesiastical property of 1859, which required the church to cede its properties to the country.

The Catholic Church at that time had 52% of the national real estate, however, these were not worked.

These assets were expropriated for the benefit of the nation, since they were intended to be handed over to civilians in the hope of creating a working middle class, similar to that of the United States.

The Civil Marriage Law, approved in 1859, converted the marriage and its acts into a civil contract with the State, nullifying the official validity of the religious marriage and thus avoiding the forced intervention of the church and the collection of priests.

Similarly, the Organic Law of the Civil Registry dates from the same year, where the government was in charge of birth, death and civil status declarations.

The church stopped being in charge of other civil matters with orders such as:

• The Decree of Secularization of Cemeteries, where the clergy no longer had the opportunity to intervene.

• The Decree of Suppression of Religious Festivities, where on the days declared holidays the sanctification of the festivities was not obligatory
• The Law on Freedom of Worship, established in 1860, where the Catholic religion was no longer mandatory and the only one allowed, in addition to establishing that all religious ceremonies should be kept within the limits of temples and cathedrals.

The New Mexico after the reform

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