ANCIENT EGYPT: PERIODS, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, RELIGION - HISTORY

The Ancient Egypt is the name given to the civilization that developed around the Nile River in northwest Africa. The area in which he settled began in the delta of the Nile, on the shore of the Mediterranean, and reached up to the first waterfall of that river. All this territory was divided into two parts: Upper Egypt, to the south of the country, and Lower Egypt, to the north.

Although there are divergences among experts on chronology, it is generally considered that the Egyptian civilization began around the year 3150 BC. Its history lasted 3000 years, until the year 31 a. C, when the Roman Empire conquered their lands. This entire long period has been divided into several phases by historians.

Ancient Egyptian painting showing wheat threshing - Source: Carlos E. Solivérez via Wikimedia Commons

Egyptian society was quite hierarchical and religion had a great influence. The latter led to the priests having great political power, while the pharaohs, monarchs of Ancient Egypt, were practically considered gods.

In addition to the importance of religion, the other great defining element of Egyptian civilization was the Nile River. Thanks to its floods, the country could feed itself, since it allowed to cultivate lands surrounded by deserts.

Location

Nile valley

Egyptian civilization took place in the Nile Valley, in the northeast of the African continent. Its extension varied over time, since at the time of greatest splendor it reached territories south of the first cataract and areas far from the riverbed.

The country of Quimit

The inhabitants of the area that crossed the Nile River called it Quimit. This name meant "black earth" and served to distinguish the region from the red earth deserts.

The element that most influenced the formation of Egyptian civilization was the Nile River. Its waters were responsible for the fertility of the nearby lands. In addition, once a year the river overflowed, increasing the area of arable land.

Although the limits varied depending on the time, its most common borders were the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Nubia to the south, the Red Sea to the east and the Libyan desert to the west.

Territorial division

The first area ranged from the first cataract of the Nile, where the town of Aswan is today, to Memphis, where the river began to form the delta. The monarch of Upper Egypt wore a white crown until the unification took place. Lower Egypt, for its part, comprised the entire Nile Delta region.

Periods

Egyptologists have not reached a consensus on the chronology of Egyptian civilization. Each historiographic current has established its own criteria to divide this stage of history and there are important divergences on this matter.

the beginning

The archaeological remains found in the area show that it was during the Neolithic, around 6000 BC. C, when the first stable settlements were built. It was in this period when the nomadic peoples changed their customs and began to live on livestock and agriculture.

Predynastic period (c. 5500 BC-3200 BC)

This period spanned the time before the Nile Valley was politically unified and corresponds to the Copper Age.

The first cultures that appeared at this time were that of El Fayum, around 5,000 BC. C, the Tasian, in 4 500 BC. C and Merimde, about 4,000 BC All these peoples already knew pottery, agriculture and livestock. These last two activities were the basis of its economy, something that favored the presence of the Nile River.

About 3,600 BC A new culture appeared, denominated Naqada II. This was the first to spread throughout Egypt and unified its culture.

It was also in this period, about 3 500 BC. C, when the first canalizations began to be built to take better advantage of the Nile floods. Likewise, the peoples of the area began to use hieroglyphic writing.

The Egypt of the time was divided into regions called nomes. Thus, in the delta, two feudal states were formed, with independent monarchs. After years of fighting between the two states, the victory of the so-called kingdom of the Bee managed to unify the territory. The defeated, for their part, had to flee to Upper Egypt, where they founded their own cities.

Proto-Dynastic Period (c. 3200-3000 BC)

This phase is also known as Dynasty 0 or Naqada III period. The rulers belonged to Upper Egypt, with its capital at Tinis. Already at this time, the main god was Horus.

In addition to the aforementioned Tinis, it was in this period that the first cities of some importance appeared, such as Nejen or Tubet. Although it cannot be stated one hundred percent, it is considered that the last king of the time was Narmer, founder of the I dynasty.

Archaic period (c. 3100-2686 BC)

Just before this new period began, Egypt was divided into several small kingdoms. The most important were that of Nejen (Hierakonpolis), in Upper Egypt, and that of Buto, in Lower Egypt. It was the monarchs of the former who began the final process of unification.

According to the country's tradition, the person responsible for the unification was Menes, as reflected in the Royal List. Some historians consider that he was the first pharaoh with power over all Egypt. During this phase dynasties I and II reigned.

Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2181 BC)

Narmer palette. The general Egyptological consensus identifies Narmer with Pharaoh Menes of Dynasty I.

With Dynasty III, Egyptian rulers moved the capital to Memphis. The Greeks called the main temple of this city Aegyptos and hence the name of the country was born.

During this period, the great pyramids that characterized the Egyptian civilization began to be built. The first pharaoh to have one of these great tombs erected was Djoser. Later, also in this phase, the three great pyramids of Giza were built: Cheops, Khafre and Menkaure.

In the social aspect, the high clergy gained much power from Dynasty V. Another outstanding aspect was the decentralization process that took place during the government of Pepy II, when the nomarchs (local governors) strengthened their positions.

First intermediate period (c. 2190-2050 BC)

The decentralization of political power, which had begun in the previous period, continued during the following dynasties, from the 7th to the mid-11th. This phase ended with a new political unification carried out by Mentuhotep II.

Historians claim that this First Intermediate Period was a period of decline. However, it was also a stage in which culture reached important heights, especially literature.

Osiris

On the other hand, the middle class of the cities began to flourish, which caused a change in mentality. This was accompanied by a transformation in beliefs that made Osiris the most important god.

Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-1750 BC)

The change of period occurred when Mentuhotep unified the country again. It was a very prosperous time economically and territorially expanding.

Much of this economic prosperity was due to the works carried out in El Fayum with the purpose of controlling and taking advantage of the Nile floods. Thus, infrastructures were built to divert the water to Lake Moeris.

Likewise, the Egyptians established strong commercial relations with nearby regions, both Mediterranean, African and Asian.

The event that ended the Middle Kingdom was the defeat of the Egyptian army before the Hyksos, which was preceded by large migratory movements of Libyans and Canaanites towards the Nile Valley.

Second intermediate period (c. 1800-1550 BC)

After their victory, the Hyksos came to control much of the Egyptian territory. This people, made up of Libyans and Asians, established their capital at Avaris, in the Nile Delta.

The Egyptian reaction came from Thebes. There, the leaders of the city, the 17th dynasty, declared their independence. After this proclamation they began a war against the Hyksos invaders until they managed to recover the country.

New Kingdom (c. 1550-1070 BC)

Ramses II statue in Luxor. Alexandra at lb.wikipedia

The 18th, 19th and 20th dynasties succeeded in restoring the splendor of Egyptian civilization. In addition, they increased their influence in the Middle East and ordered the construction of huge architectural projects.

A historically outstanding moment unfolded with Akhenaten's rise to power at the end of the 18th dynasty. This monarch tried to establish monotheism in the country, although he encountered great opposition from the priestly class.

The tensions created by Akhenaten's claim were not resolved until the reign of Horemheb, the last pharaoh of his dynasty.

Much of the pharaohs of the next two dynasties shared the name Ramses, which made the time known as the Ramsesid Period. Among all of them, Ramses II stood out in a special way, pharaoh who led Egypt to its highest point during the New Kingdom.

This pharaoh signed a peace agreement with the Hittites, then one of the great powers of the Middle East. In addition, the most important architectural projects were developed since the construction of the pyramids.

The successors of Ramses II tried to maintain his work. However, Ramses XI could not prevent Egypt from re-decentralizing.

Third intermediate period (c. 1070-656 BC)

Two dynasties with pharaohs of Libyan origin were established at the same time in Egyptian territory. One of them dominated Lower Egypt, with its capital in Tanis. The second ruled from Thebes, with monarchs who assumed the title of High Priests of Amun. The end of this period occurred when the Cushite kings took power.

Late period (c. 656-332 BC)

The first rulers during this period belonged to the Saita dynasty. Later, it was a Nubian dynasty that came to power.

During this stage there was an invasion attempt by the Assyrians and two different phases of Persian rule.

Hellenistic period (332-30 BC)

Alexander the Great

The victory of Alexander the Great over the Persian Empire led him to also control Egypt. At his death, the territory passed into the hands of one of his generals: Ptolemy. This, although Macedonian like Alexander himself, kept the name of pharaoh to rule the Egyptians.

The next 300 years, under Ptolemaic rule, were one of great prosperity. Political power remained centralized and the pharaohs promoted various reconstruction programs for ancient monuments.

The dynasty started by Ptolemy ended in 30 BC. The Romans, led by Octavio, overthrew the alliance formed by Cleopatra VII and Marco Antonio.

Roman period (30 BC-640 AD)

Octavian's aforementioned victory over Cleopatra turned Egypt into a Roman province. This situation continued until the Roman Empire divided in 395, leaving Egypt under the rule of the Byzantines.

In 640, a new emerging power defeated the Byzantine rulers of Egypt: the Arabs. With this conquest, the last remains of the ancient culture of the country disappeared.

Economy

The base of the economy of Ancient Egypt was agriculture. The fertility granted by the waters of the Nile to the nearby lands was what allowed the growth and development of their culture.

To better take advantage of these conditions, the Egyptians built dikes, irrigation canals, and ponds, all designed to carry water from the river to farmland. There, the peasants obtained, especially, various types of cereals that were used to make bread and other foods.

In addition, the irrigation infrastructures allowed abundant harvests of peas, lentils or leeks, as well as fruits such as grapes, dates or pomegranates.

This agricultural wealth made the Egyptians obtain more products than necessary for their food. This allowed them to establish trade relations with various foreign regions, especially those of the Mediterranean.

Nile stations

To take advantage of the waters of the Nile, the Egyptians had to study its annual cycles. Thus, they established the existence of three stations: Akhet, Peret, and Shemu.

The first, Akhet, was when the waters of the Nile flooded the nearby lands. This phase began in June and lasted until September. When the waters receded, a layer of silt remained on the ground, increasing the fertility of the land.

It was then, when Peret began, when the fields were sown. Once this was done, they used the dikes and canals to irrigate the land. Lastly, the Shemu was the time of harvest, between March and May.

Commerce

As noted earlier, surplus production allowed Egyptians to trade with nearby regions. In addition, their expeditions also used to find jewels for the pharaohs and even to sell or buy slaves.

An important figure in this field were the shutiu, with functions similar to those of a commercial agent. These characters were in charge of product sales activities on behalf of institutions such as temples or the royal palace.

Apart from the trade routes to the Mediterranean or the Middle East, the Egyptians have left evidence of expeditions to central Africa.

Taxation

The Egyptian rulers established several taxes that had to be paid in kind or with work, since there was no currency. The person responsible for the charges was the Vizier, who acted on behalf of the pharaoh.

The tax system was progressive, that is, each one paid according to their possessions. Farmers delivered products from harvests, artisans with part of what they made, and fishermen with what they caught.

In addition to these taxes, one person from each family had to be available to work for the state for a few weeks a year. The tasks ranged from cleaning canals to construction of tombs, to mining. The wealthiest used to pay someone to replace them.

Architecture

One of the characteristics of Ancient Egypt that most influenced its architecture was the semi-divine character of its pharaohs.

This, together with the power acquired by the priests, caused a good part of the typical buildings to have functions related to religion, from the pyramids to the temples.

characteristics

The materials used by the Egyptians were mainly adobe and stone. Besides, they also used limestone, sandstone and granite.

From the ancient empire, stone was used only to build temples and tombs, while adobe bricks were the basis for houses, palaces and fortresses.

Most of the large buildings had walls and pillars. The roofs were made up of stone blocks that were supported by the external walls and huge columns. The arch, which was already known, was not widely used in these constructions.

On the other hand, it was very common for the walls, columns and ceilings to be adorned with hieroglyphs and bas-reliefs, all painted in bright colors. The decoration was very symbolic and used to include religious elements such as the scarab or the sun disk. Along with this, representations of palm leaves, papyrus and lot flowers were common.

living place

The houses of Ancient Egypt had several rooms that surrounded a large hall. This had an overhead light source and used to have several columns. Besides, the houses used to have a terrace, a cellar and a garden.

Likewise, some of these houses had an interior patio, which gave light to the house. The heat, on the contrary, made it advisable that the rooms had no windows.

Those high temperatures were a very important factor when building the houses. The important thing was to insulate the home from the dry conditions outside.

The pyramids

Pyramids of Gizah. Ricardo Liberato

The first architect in history, Imhotep, was responsible for creating the first pyramid. According to legend, the idea was born from his attempt to unite several mastabas to build a building that points towards the sky.

According to the latest calculations, made in 2008, the Egyptian civilization built 138 pyramids, especially those located in the Giza Valley.

The purpose of these monuments was to serve as tombs for the pharaohs and relatives. Inside they have several rooms, linked by narrow corridors. Offerings were deposited in the rooms so that the pharaoh could make the transition to the other life comfortably.

Mastabas and hypogea

The pyramids weren't the only buildings intended to serve as tombs. Thus, mastabas and hypogea also had this function.

The former were built in the shape of a truncated pyramid and had an underground chamber in which the mummified bodies of members of the nobility were deposited.

For their part, the hypogea were tombs built underground, on the slopes of the mountains. Inside the structure there was a chapel, also a well. Next to this was the room in which the mummy was buried. This type of construction was intended for the privileged and wealthy classes.

Temples

The ancient Egyptians gave their temples a majestic structure in order to honor their gods. These buildings dedicated to worship were located at the end of long avenues, with small sphinxes on each side.

The facade had two truncated pyramids. The entrance was adorned with two obelisks and a couple of statues representing the god to whom the temple was dedicated.

Inside there were several rooms: the so-called Hypostyle room, where the faithful met; the Apparition room, the place of entry of the priests; and an interior vestibule, in which the prayers were made.

The most important temples of the time were located in Karnak and in Luxor (Thebes).

Religion and gods

As noted, religion shaped all aspects of the life of the Egyptians. These worshiped a series of gods who controlled all the elements of nature. In this way, a good part of the religious fact consisted in honoring those gods so that the lives of the faithful would improve.

The pharaoh was considered a divine being and had the responsibility of performing rituals and offering offerings to the divinities so that they were favorable to his people. For this reason, the State allocated large resources to religious practice, as well as to build temples.

The common people used prayers to beg the gods to grant them their gifts. Likewise, it was also common to use magic for it.

Apart from the influence of the gods in their daily life, the Egyptians paid great attention to death. Funerary rituals to prepare the passage to the afterlife were a fundamental part of Egyptian religion.

All the country's inhabitants, to a greater or lesser extent depending on their wealth, deposited offerings or grave goods in their graves.

Gods

The Egyptian religion was polytheistic and its pantheon had as many as 2,000 different gods. In this regard, experts point out that it was a very tolerant society.

Politics was closely related to religion, to the point that the importance of each god depended greatly on the ruler at each moment. As an example, when Hierapolis was the main city, the predominant god was Ra, however, when the capital was in Memphis, the main deity was Ptah.

After the 6th dynasty there was a temporary weakening of the monarchical power, something that caused some local deities to gain importance. Among these was Osiris, a god related to resurrection.

According to his beliefs, Osiris was killed by Seth, his brother and, later, resurrected thanks to the intervention of his wife and sister Isis.

Already in the Middle Kingdom, another god assumed great importance: Amun. This had appeared in Thebes, in Upper Egypt, and was immediately related to Ra, of Lower Egypt. This identification between the two gods helped a lot to bring about the cultural unification of the country.

Aten

Aton iconography. User: AtonX

The arrival of Akhenaten to power, about 1353 BC. C, had a great impact on Egyptian religious practice. The so-called heretic pharaoh tried to impose monotheism in the country and have its inhabitants worship Aten as the only deity.

Akhenaten ordered that temples to other gods not be built throughout Egypt and even had the names of the deities removed from the buildings. Some experts, however, maintain that the pharaoh did allow other gods to be worshiped privately.

Akhenaten's attempt was a failure. With the opposition of the priestly caste and without the people accepting this new belief system, the cult of Aten as the only god practically disappeared with the death of Pharaoh.

The pharaoh as a religious figure

There is no total consensus among Egyptologists as to whether the pharaoh was considered a god in himself. Many believe that his absolute authority was viewed by his subjects as a divine force. For this historiographical current, the pharaoh was considered a human being, but endowed with a power equivalent to that of a god.

What all scholars agree on was the important role that the monarch played in the religious aspect. Thus, he acted as an intermediary between the divinities and the Egyptian people. However, there were many temples in which a pharaoh was directly worshiped.

As noted before, politics and religion were closely related. In this sense, the pharaoh was associated with some specific gods, such as Horus, representative of the royal power itself.

Horus was also the son of Ra, a god who had the power to regulate nature. This was directly associated with the functions of the pharaoh, in charge of governing and regulating society. Already in the New Kingdom, the pharaoh became related to Amun, supreme god of the cosmos.

When the monarch died, he became fully identified with Ra, as well as with Osiris, god of death and resurrection.

Death

Death and what happened after it had great importance in the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians. According to their religion, each human being possessed a kind of vital force that they called ka. Upon death, the ka had to continue to be fed and therefore food was deposited as offerings in the burials.

In addition to the ka, each individual was also endowed with a ba, made up of the spiritual characteristics of each person. This ba would remain within the body after death unless proper rituals were performed to release it. Once this was accomplished, the ka and the ba met.

At first, the Egyptians thought that only the pharaoh had a ba and, therefore, he was the only one who could merge with the gods. The rest, after dying, went to a realm of darkness, characterized as the opposite of life.

Later, beliefs changed and it was thought that the deceased pharaohs lived in the sky, among the stars.

During the Old Kingdom a new change took place. From then on he began to associate the pharaoh with the figure of Ra and with Osiris.

The final judgement

When the Old Empire was ending, about 2181 BC. C, the Egyptian religion came to consider that all individuals possessed a ba and, therefore, could enjoy a heavenly place after death.

Starting in the New Kingdom, this type of belief developed and the priests explained the whole process that happened after death. Upon death, the soul of each person had to overcome a series of dangers known as the Duat. Once overcome, the final judgment took place. In this, the gods checked if the life of the deceased made him worthy of a positive afterlife.

Political and social organization

The importance of religion over all aspects of daily life also extended to politics. In this sense, Ancient Egypt can be considered as a theocracy, in which the pharaoh also occupied the religious leadership as an intermediary of the gods. This circumstance was clearly noted in the social structure of the country.

At the top of the social pyramid was the pharaoh, political and religious leader. Also, as noted, some Egyptologists claim that the monarch was considered a god in himself, something that extended to his entire family.

On the next step were the priests, beginning with the high clergy. Behind them were the officials in charge of the administration. Within this social class the scribes stood out, whose task was to reflect in writing all the laws, commercial agreements or sacred texts of Egypt.

The military occupied the next step, followed by merchants, artisans, and peasants. Below them were only the slaves, who did not have rights as citizens and were, many times, prisoners of war.

The Pharaoh

Typical representation of the pharaoh. Jeff Dahl

The pharaoh was considered as the supreme doer within the Egyptian civilization. As such, it had absolute powers over citizens, as well as being responsible for maintaining order in the cosmos.

As has been pointed out, the monarch had an almost divine consideration and was the one who was in charge of the intermediation between the gods and living beings, including animals and plants.

Egyptian art, with multiple representations of the pharaohs, tended to idealize their figure, since it was not about faithfully representing their physique, but about recreating a model of perfection.

Priestly caste

As in all theocratic states, the priestly caste accumulated enormous powers. Within this class was the Grand Priest, who was to be in charge of directing the cult.

For many centuries, the priests formed a caste that sometimes rivaled the pharaoh himself in influence when he was weak.

These priests were divided into several categories, each with different functions. All of them were required to purify themselves frequently and, every day, they conducted a ritual in which they sang religious hymns. Apart from this, his other assignment was to study science and practice medicine.

Another religious position, although closely related to politics, was the so-called Priest Sem. This position, one of the most relevant in the religious hierarchy, used to be occupied by the heir of the pharaoh, almost always his eldest son.

Its functions were to officiate the rituals that were celebrated when the monarch died, including the parts with which the entrance of the deceased into the afterlife was facilitated.

The vizier

In a state as complex as that of Egypt, the pharaohs needed men of confidence to take care of the day to day. The most important position was held by the vizier, the right hand of the monarch. His duties ranged from managing the country to advising on the businesses that were carried out.

They were also the ones in charge of all confidential documents and of procuring the food supply for the pharaoh's family. All the problems that might arise in the palace were his concern so that the monarch did not have to worry. This also included the defense of the entire royal family.

The vizier also had a role within the economic administration. Thus, they were responsible for collecting taxes and were in charge of various officials to carry out this task.

Likewise, they studied and started projects that would help improve agriculture, work that included the construction of canals, dams and ponds.

Egyptologists claim that this figure was also responsible for guarding the country's treasure. To do this, they created a system of granaries, since, in the absence of a currency, all trade and tax collection was carried out in kind.

Nobility

Most of the nobility was made up of the monarch's family. This class was completed with members of other families who had obtained the support of the pharaoh. In these cases, the most frequent was that they received wealth and lands, in addition to being appointed governors.

For this reason, the nobles used to own large tracts of land, usually in the provinces they ruled

In the social pyramid, the nobles were below the pharaoh and the priests. His power emanated from the monarch and his role was to ensure that laws were followed and social order was maintained.

Military might

Like any empire, Egypt had a powerful army, capable of covering several fronts at the same time. It was not uncommon, for example, that they had to fight both the Nubians in the south and the Canaanites in the north.

Egyptian military force was not only used for these extensive or defensive wars. The Army was also responsible for maintaining the unity of the State, especially during periods in which total centralism prevailed, something that provoked uprisings by some local forces in search of greater autonomy.

Scribes

Among Egyptian state officials, one figure stood out without whom that civilization would not have been able to reach its full splendor: the scribe. Although their functions may seem simple, all Egyptologists agree that their presence was essential to administer and govern Egypt.

The scribes were in charge of putting in writing each one of the important decisions that were made in the country. Thus, they had to record the laws, decrees, commercial agreements and religious texts that were approved.

Apart from the scribes in the Royal Palace, each important locality in the country had its own archive and its own scribes. The buildings that housed them were called Houses of Life and in them the documents related to the operation of the town were kept.

The scribes accumulated titles such as Chief of Secrets, a denomination that reflected their importance and suggests that they were receiving a religious initiation.

In addition to their work as scribes, the scribes were also in charge of communicating the orders of the monarch, of leading missions entrusted to the pharaoh or of diplomacy.

The slaves

In general, slaves were prisoners in some of the wars fought by the Egyptian armies. Once captured, they were at the disposal of the State, which decided their fate. Very often, they were sold to the highest bidder.

Although there are different theories, many authors claim that these slaves were used for the construction of buildings, including pyramids. Likewise, some of them were in charge of mummifying the corpses.

The slaves did not possess any type of rights. Men were assigned to do the hardest jobs, while women and children were engaged in domestic service.

Themes of interest

Egyptian literature.

Egyptian goddesses.

Gods of Egypt.

References

UNHCR Spanish Committee. Ancient history of Egypt, the civilization that arose along the Nile. Retrieved from eacnur.org
Lacasa Esteban, Carmen. The political organization in Ancient Egypt. Obtained from revistamito.com
Universal history. Egyptian culture or Ancient Egypt. Obtained from mihistoriauniversal.com
Alan K. Bowman Edward F. Wente John R. Baines Alan Edouard Samuel Peter F. Dorman. Ancient Egypt. Retrieved from britannica.com
History.com Editors. Ancient Egypt. Retrieved from history.com
Mark, Joshua J. Ancient Egypt. Retrieved from ancient.eu
Jarus, Owen. Ancient Egypt: A Brief History. Retrieved from livescience.com
Schoolworkhelper Editorial Team. Ancient Egyptian Religion: Beliefs & Gods. Retrieved from schoolworkhelper.net
Ancient Civilization. Egyptian Social Structure. Retrieved from ushistory.org

ANCIENT EGYPT: PERIODS, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, RELIGION - HISTORY - 2025