MARCUS AURELIUS: BIOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT, EMPIRE, WARS - ARTE - 2025

Marco Aurelio (121 - 180) was emperor of Rome that exerted from the year 161 until his death. He was one of the followers of Stoic philosophy and was one of its main exponents, which is why he was called the Sage. He rose to the throne along with his adoptive brother, Lucio Vero, which made them the first to take the reins of the Empire together since Titus.

Marco Aurelio Came from families that had held power for generations and was adopted by Antonino Pío. He knew what his calling was within the Empire from a very young age and the exercise of power was the priority when training him. He was called the last of the Five Good Emperors.

Bust of Marcus Aurelius, by Glyptothek, via Wikimedia Commons.

During his tenure he had to deal with several uprisings in the provinces. It also had several open fronts: on the one hand against the fierce Parthian Empire and the Armenians, while on the other it faced the Germanic tribes.

Important data

Marcus Aurelius stood up to the ravages caused in the Empire by the outbreak of the Antonine plague, which affected a large part of the population and claimed more than five million lives within a few years after he assumed office.

He broke the custom of adopting a young man to serve as his successor to the throne, who bequeathed one of his children with Faustina, Commodus, who failed to live up to the space his father had left.

Marco Aurelio was the author of a work entitled Meditations, which is considered one of the great texts of Stoic philosophy.

The period that Marcus Aurelius spent as emperor was the banner of the golden age of the Roman Empire. He dealt with the legal affairs of Rome in an efficient way, and showed concern for the well-being of the most vulnerable such as the poor, widows and orphans.

Biography

-First years

Marco Annio Catilio Severo was born on April 26, 121 in Rome. He was the son of the Hispanic praetor Marco Annio Vero (III) and his wife, Domicia Lucila, who was the heir to a great fortune and a lineage of great relevance in Roman society.

He had a sister named Annia Cornificia Faustina, who was two years younger. Those were the only descendants conceived by the couple. Marco Annio Vero died around 124, when his son was around 3 years old. Lucila did not take a husband again.

Marco Aurelio always remembered his mother with affection and appreciated the customs she taught him. Likewise, he claimed to follow his father's example, although he knew little about him.

The paternal grandfather of the young orphan, Marco Annio Vero (II), was consul of the Roman Senate. It was his grandfather who kept the patria potestas over his grandson and took care of the boy until he died in 138, when Marco was 19 years old.

Likewise, his maternal great-grandfather, named Lucio Catilio Severo, played an active role in Marco's upbringing.

His grandmother Rupilia Faustina's sister, Vibia Sabina, was the wife of Emperor Hadrian. Through this branch Marco descended from the emperor Trajan.

-Education

Marco was educated at home, as was the custom among the Romans. The instruction for him began around 128. The names of two tutors, Euphoric and Geminus, in addition to another whose identity is unknown, have transcended from this time.

Euphoric is believed to have taught Marco the Greek language and probably literature. Geminus was an actor, so he must have instructed him in Latin pronunciation and the basics of public speaking. The third teacher appears to have been a moral supervisor and tutor.

First encounter with philosophy

Around 132, he started in secondary education. He began to have lessons in geometry, art, and philosophy. Among the teachers that Marco had at this time, the most important was Diogneto, who introduced the boy to philosophy.

It is believed that then he began to receive lessons wearing Greek clothing and that he decided to start sleeping on the floor until Lucilla managed to convince him to take a bed.

Another of the tutors who influenced the future emperor was Alexander of Cotiaeum, a student of Homer, who polished the literary style of Marco.

Emperor's Favorite

At the age of 6 Marco entered the Ordo equester, an order of knights who were selected from among patriotic citizens.

It was not common for children to be accepted, much less as young as Marcus Aurelius was then, but the boy had been recommended by the Emperor Augustus.

Bust of Marcus Aurelius as a Child, by Capitoline Museums, via Wikimedia Commons

Later he also joined the college of priests known as the Salios, consecrated to the god Mars. This group performed public rituals at different times of the year. Thanks to his efforts, Marco managed to become Master of the Salios.

Although they did not share much during the tender years of the young, Emperor Hadrian felt affection for Marco and gave him the nickname "honest."

Future and destiny

When Marco received the virile toga, that is, he became a man in the eyes of Roman society, Hadrian was in charge of committing him to the young Ceionia Fabia, daughter of the heir to the throne up to that time Lucio Ceionio Comfortable, known as Lucio Aelio Cease.

In 136 Adriano became ill and, thinking that death was imminent, he adopted Lucio Aelio César as his son and named him heir. However, in 138 the heir died as a result of a hemorrhage.

Then the marriage commitment between Marco and Ceionia Fabia was annulled and, instead, he had to marry the daughter of Antonino Pío.

Imperial heir

After the death of Lucio Aelio Caesar, Adriano decided to name Antonino as his successor.

One condition was imposed on the future emperor: he had to adopt both the young Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Commodus, son of the late Aelius Caesar, and appoint them both heirs to the Roman Empire.

This was done and in 138 Marco Aurelio became the heir apparent, as did Lucio. Since then the first adopted the name of Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar and the last Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus.

Entrance to the Government

Some time later, Hadrian himself asked the Roman Senate that Marco Aurelio be allowed to exercise a position as quaestor before reaching the legal minimum age of 24 years. In 140 Marco Aurelio was selected for the position of consul of the Roman Empire.

From his appointment as consul was when he began his real work in terms of preparing to lead the Empire. In 145 he was elected to the position once more, in addition to carrying out the marriage between Faustina the Younger, daughter of Antonino, and Marco Aurelio.

The day after the birth of the couple's first daughter, in 147, Antoninus Pius granted Marcus Aurelius an imperium and the tribunicia potestas, thus becoming the most powerful man after the emperor.

Training to rule

When Marco Aurelio was about 15 years old, in 136, it was when he began to instruct him in oratory. It was common for the Greek language to be used in Rome at the time, especially when it came to philosophy, reserving Latin for other aspects.

Marco had as tutors in the art of speech Anio Macer, Caninius Celer and Herodes Atticus, all three specialized in Greek. Meanwhile, to perfect his oratory in Latin he was entrusted to Fronton.

Marcus Aurelius, Palatine Hill, by Jastrow, via Wikimedia Commons

As for the laws, the instructor of the future Roman emperor was Volusius, an important jurist who wrote several texts on the subject and, like Marcus Aurelius, belonged to the equites.

The heir and his teachers

The relationship between Fronton and the young heir was very close: in some of his letters Marco Aurelio professed his love for him and regretted that the master had such fragile health. The young man even assured that he would like the Fronton pain to be inflicted on himself.

At the age of 25, Marco Aurelio was already disenchanted with his studies, especially those that referred to legal matters.

However, he always maintained good relations with his teachers and had statues of them made for his personal chapel.

The philosopher prince

Despite the fact that Fronton, his most appreciated teacher, had recommended him on different occasions that it was not convenient for him to study philosophy, Marco Aurelio found in his study a break from the other subjects that had ceased to please him.

It is thought that it was Apollonius of Chalcedon who introduced the Stoic philosophy to the young Marcus Aurelius. Likewise, he was one of the Stoics with whom the heir to the Empire frequently met.

However, Fifth June Rustico seems to have been the one that had the most influence on the philosophical thought of the young prince. It was this teacher on whom the blame fell for Marco Aurelio's departure from the study of oratory.

Thanks to stoicism, Marco Aurelio claimed to have learned not to be carried away by the emotion of rhetoric, nor to talk about subjects that were mere speculations. However, there were other important friends regarding the philosophical growth of Marco Aurelio. One of the most important was Claudio Máximo.

The same emperor in his Meditations said that it was from the last one who learned to maintain control of himself and to be always cheerful.

Antonino's final years

Lucio Vero was about a decade younger than Marco Aurelio. Consequently his participation in the government was later given to that of his adoptive brother.

In 152 Lucio was appointed quaestor, the same position granted to Marco at the beginning of his career. Two years later, the minor received the position of consul.

Among the heirs there were obvious differences in tastes and character. The youngest was inclined towards physical activities, while Marco always cultivated his intellectuality.

Antonino Pío did not feel liked by the tendencies that the personality of Lucio suggested, reason why it tried that it did not know the glory or the fame at a young age.

Consuls

In 160 both heirs, Marco Aurelio and Lucio Vero, received the position of consul at the same type. The health of his adoptive father was deteriorating and everything indicated that his turn would soon come to become emperors of Rome.

The following year Antonino Pío passed away. He bequeathed his assets to his daughter Faustina. In addition, he sent to Marco's room the golden statue of fortune that traditionally accompanied the apartments of Roman emperors.

government

Marcus Aurelius was already fully familiar with the management of the Empire when Antoninus Pius died.

Then, the brothers were named joint emperors and from that moment on they were called Imperator Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus and Imperator Lucius Aurelius Verus Augustus.

Although according to the law both had exactly the same powers over the Empire, it is thought that it was Marcus Aurelius who really took over the reins of government.

However, as a pledge of trust between the two, Lucio was in charge of military affairs.

problems

At first they had a peaceful reign, but between 161 and 162 there was a famine due to the flood of the Tiber. That same year conflicts broke out with Parthia due to the interference of the latter in Armenia.

At that time it was resolved that Lucio Vero was in charge of leading the Roman forces that faced the Parthians on the western front of the Empire. Shortly afterwards, the wedding of Lucio and Lucila, the daughter of Marco Aurelio and Faustina, was celebrated.

The confrontations were not lacking since since the beginning of the 160s the barbarians had been attacking the northern part of the Empire, although the real conflict broke out in 166.

The Marcomanni wars against the Germanic tribes were latent until 189.

Last years

After the death of Lucio Vero (169), his partner in the position of Roman emperor, Marco Aurelio happened to be alone in power.

This served to consolidate his position at the head of the State, although some consider that Vero never represented a threat to the authority of Marco Aurelio.

He was in charge of correcting certain legal aspects in which he favored the most unprotected, such as widows and orphans or even slaves. In addition, he always maintained a respectful attitude towards the Roman Senate.

Around 165, Marcus Aurelius had to deal with the Antonine plague, a name that referred to an outbreak of smallpox that struck Rome at the time and claimed more than 5 million lives within the imperial borders.

It is believed that he established trade with the Chinese Empire, which was then ruled by the Han dynasty.

Future of empire

Marco Aurelio broke with another tradition, since in addition to having held the position of emperor together with a colleague, he bequeathed the Empire to his son, who was of legal age and whom he had prepared for the post.

In any case, Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius with Faustina, represented a great disappointment for the Roman people, as he could not fill the space his father had occupied and thus ended the streak of good emperors.

Death

Marco Aurelio died on March 17, 180 in Vindobona, a city that currently bears the name of Vienna. Some sources assure that the death occurred for natural reasons, while according to others it may have been a victim of smallpox.

He was always considered to have a delicate complexion, so it is thought that staying close to the front lines did not favor him and that is why his health had a break that led him to the grave.

The Last Words of Marcus Aurelius, by Eugène Delacroix, via Wikimedia Commons

In any case, the emperor, who was 59 years old at the time of his death, had understood that for a boy to learn the art of government he had to prepare and harden himself, and that is why he named his son a comfortable joint emperor since 177.

The end of tranquility

Countless historians have viewed the death of Marcus Aurelius as the milestone that marks the end of a period known as the Pax Romana.

His son did not have the gifts for the government that he had known how to demonstrate and that led him to a paranoid government that benefited no one.

The texts of Marcus Aurelio's philosophy were one of the most valuable inheritances that this Roman emperor bequeathed to humanity. It was one of the emblems of Stoicism and has been studied by philosophers of all time ever since.

Family

Although Hadrian had arranged a marriage between Marcus Aurelius and Lucio Vero's sister, that arrangement was broken almost immediately after the death of the emperor and the ascension of Antoninus Pius.

Then it was agreed that Faustina the Younger, daughter of Antonino, would marry Marco Aurelio. The wedding did not take place immediately, but in 145. The couple had more than 13 descendants and were married for three decades.

Despite the fact that they conceived a large offspring, there were only five children who managed to reach adulthood, of which only one was a male, Comfortable, the only one who had a claim to the title of emperor, since his father did not adopt anyone.

Sons

- Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (147 - 165).

- Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucila (c. 148 - 182).

- Lucila's twin (c. 148 - c. 150).

- Titus Elio Antonino (150 - c. 161).

- Tito Elio Aurelio (150 - c. 161).

- Hadrian (152 - c. 161).

- Domicia Faustina (c. 150 - c. 161).

- Fadila (159 - c. 192).

- Annia Cornificia Faustina the Lesser (160 - c. 211/217).

- Tito Aurelio Fulvo Antonino (161 - 165).

- Lucio Aurelio Comfortable Antonino (161–192).

- Marco Annio Vero César (162 - 169).

- Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170 - c. 217).

Empire

Ascent to the throne

On March 7, 161 Antonino Pío died. A day later Marco Aurelio assumed the position for which he had been prepared for decades: emperor of Rome and, at his insistence, he did so alongside his brother Lucio Vero.

In this way, the dream that Emperor Hadrian, predecessor of Antonino Pio, had one day came true, who placed both boys in the family of his heir with the vision that together they would take the reins of the Empire.

In theory, both brothers held the same position and had the same powers in the State. However, for many it was clear that it was Marco Aurelio who controlled the threads of power in the government.

It has been the common thought that there was great loyalty between both rulers, since military affairs were bequeathed to Lucio Vero, who proved worthy of the trust placed in him with that responsibility.

They held a ceremony before the troops to whom, as was customary, they made a special donation.

Despite the fact that the transition was completely peaceful and there was no reason to question the rights of the new emperors, they decided to double the amount of the amount and gave each of their men 20,000 denarii.

Plague Antonina

The Antonine plague was a pandemic that attacked the Roman Empire between 165 and 180. This condition was also known as the “plague of Galen”. Although many say that it was smallpox or measles that has not been determined with accuracy.

The first major outbreak is believed to have occurred at the site of Seleucia, where many Roman citizens were infected. From there it had to pass to Gaul and the adjacencies of the River Rhine, so that it also affected the barbarian tribes in the area.

Galen observed the disease and described it in the Methodus medendi: fever, sore throat, skin rashes and diarrhea were some of the symptoms that affected individuals showed.

While Marco Aurelio reigned there were several outbreaks of the Antonine plague within the Roman borders. It was speculated that Lucio Vero was one of the victims of this condition in 169, at which time large casualties were recorded from the condition.

The disease had incalculable consequences on society, economy and politics during the life of Marcus Aurelius, since entire villages were depopulated and the Roman army saw its power diminished.

Succession

Before Marcus Aurelius died, he had tried to prepare his only surviving male child, Commodus, to serve as emperor of Rome. What he could not foresee was that the young man would be the last ruler of the Antonine dynasty.

Since 79, with Titus of the Flavian dynasty, no emperor had been succeeded by biological descendants, but by men adopted and specifically prepared for that purpose.

Marcus Aurelius, fragment, by Louvre Museum, via Wikimedia Commons

The young heir showed no signs of having a character similar to his father. He liked parties, luxuries and physical activities. In fact, his athletic body was one of the things that made future Emperor Commodus most proud.

During 176 Marcus Aurelio granted his son the rank of emperor and the following year the boy was given the title of Augustus. Then, nominally, father and son held the same powers.

The heir obtained the position of consul and was given the tribunicia potestas. At that time, Comfortable was 15 years old. Then he took Brutia Crispina as his wife and, together with his father, went to participate in the Marcoman wars.

The end of the Antonines

For both his contemporaries and those who have studied Roman history, Commodus was a disappointment as Marcus Aurelius's successor. He began to proclaim that he was the incarnation of Hercules and filled the Empire with his statues.

In addition, Commodus gave extravagant shows as a gladiator and was finally assassinated on December 31, 192. This is how the Antonine dynasty ended, which was replaced by the brief Pertinax government and a convulsed political period.

Administration

The administrative work of Marcus Aurelius has been celebrated as one of the most effective of the Roman Empire and is even considered the end of the golden age of Rome.

The emperor was in charge of strengthening and consolidating the system of social mobility that existed among public officials, since he studied their performance and consequently assigned them to appropriate areas. Then it allowed them to integrate with the aristocracy of the capital.

He was charged with finding men whose merits made them worthy of their positions, and not their ancestry. However, he could not see the flaws in the heir to the Empire and that mistake cost Rome and her dynasty a heavy price.

Finance

In 168 Marco Aurelio made an interesting financial move: he revalued the Roman currency. The level of purity of silver in denarii was raised, but that measure was reversed a couple of years later.

In 161 the currency had been devalued, as it went from 83.5% purity and a silver weight of 2.68 grams, to 79% and 5.57 grams.

This was the case until 168 when the Roman denarius acquired a purity of 82% and a silver weight of 2.67 grams. Two years later the purity in force between 161 and 168 was imposed again, and it was maintained until 180.

Legal issues

Marcus Aurelius proved to be one of the most efficient emperors in terms of legal matters, and this was recognized by his contemporaries, experts in the field.

He was educated in jurisprudence by tutors whose renown in the field was unbeatable and assimilated what he learned.

In addition, the emperor liked to respect the forms in terms of legal tradition and he showed this, among other things, when he addressed the Senate of Rome for its officials to approve the budget, despite holding absolute power.

Legislation

One of the sectors of Roman society most favored by the laws that were carried out in the time of Marcus Aurelius were orphans, widows and slaves.

Hereditary claims for blood ties began to be recognized, thanks to laws promulgated by Marco Aurelio. That set a highly relevant precedent for progress on legal matters.

In addition, he created laws related to the freedom of slaves with which the manumission process was facilitated.

However, in terms of civil law there were great setbacks, such as the creation of castes (honestiones and humiliores).

Social differences dictated the penalty a person received for committing a crime, with worse punishments for the “less distinguished”.

War against Parthia

In the summer of 161 the Parthian king Vologases IV assembled a large army, invaded the kingdom of Armenia, and deposed King Soemo, a senator and loyal vassal of the Roman Empire of Arsacid descent.

The sovereign of Parthia installed Pacoro, a member of the same dynasty, as king to make Armenia a client state of the Parthian Empire.

the beginning

The governor of Cappadocia, Marco Sedacio Severiano, decided to act to restore power in the Armenian kingdom. Although he was a consecrated military man, he followed the poor advice of the thaumaturge Alejandro de Abonutico.

Severian marched towards Armenia in command of a legion, as Alexander had predicted a quick victory and glory.

Despite this, his men were cornered by the Parthian army in Elegeia, a few kilometers from the Cappadocian border.

Just three days after leaving, Severiano committed suicide because he was unable to escape. His legion was massacred by enemies, who later took control of Syria and Antioch.

Head deliveries

In the same way, the Parthian army defeated the Romans, who dispersed in retreat. Troops loyal to Marco Aurelio and Lucio Vero were under the command of Lucio Attidio Corneliano, governor of Syria.

Reinforcements were sent from the north to help on the Partisan border: Legions I, II, V and X from present-day Germany, Hungary, Romania and Austria, the last under the command of Publio Julio Germinio Marciano, an African senator.

Marco Estacio Prisco, governor of Britain, was transferred to Cappadocia. To replace the governor of Syria, Marcus Aurelius chose a man of confidence but without military experience: his cousin Marcus Annio Libon.

Two emperors

As Rome lost control over Syria it was decided, during the winter of 161, that the fellow emperor, Lucius, should lead the campaign against the Parthians, while Marcus Aurelius should remain in Rome.

Several Roman personalities accompanied Lucio: Furio Victorino, praetorian prefect, and senators Marco Ponto Laeliano Larcio Sabino and Marco Ialio Baso. The last two had held positions in the region and knew the maneuvers of the Parthians.

Statue of Marcos Aurelio, by Urban, via Wikimedia Commons

Vero set out by boat from Brindisi, south of the Italian peninsula. Her journey to the eastern front was slow, as she kept making stops in every city that could provide her with any distraction or pleasure.

Pike in front

The Emperor Lucius visited Corinth, Athens, and Eritrea. He rejoiced in the spas of Pamphylia and Cilicia before reaching Antioquia. It is believed to have arrived in the winter of 162.

Troop inspections by Vero himself showed him that the men in Syria had been weakened by the long peace, so he called for tougher and more rigorous training.

By orders of the Emperor Lucio, the generals Gayo Avidio Casio, Publio Marcio Vero and Marco Claudio Fronton had assembled an army of 16 legions, about a quarter of a million men, under the command of Marco Estacio Prisco.

When everything was ready, in the middle of 163, the Romans counterattacked and quickly took the Armenian capital, Artaxata. Soon after, Lucio left for Ephesus to marry Lucila, Marcus Aurelio's daughter.

The Parthians responded by attacking Osroena, a vassal state of Rome. They deposed the leader Mannus and stationed a king loyal to Parthia in the capital.

Victory

During the year 164, the Romans built a new capital city in Armenia called Kaine Polis, and reinstated Senator Gaius Julius Soemo in power.

At the end of that same year, Lucio prepared to march towards Edessa, capital of Osroena. So the Parthians left the area. In 165, the Roman army, led by Marcio Vero, captured Antemusia and later Edessa, after which they reinstated King Mannus in power.

Next, under the command of Avidio Casio, they marched towards the twin cities of Mesopotamia: Seleucia and Ctesiphon.

On the way the battle of Dura took place, where the Parthians suffered a great defeat. Ctesiphon was captured and the royal palace was consumed by fire

The people of Seleucia, who still considered themselves Greeks, opened the gates to the Roman army. Despite that, they sacked the city. Lucio excused himself saying that the inhabitants had betrayed them after going through the gates.

Cassius's army returned safely to Roman territory, starving for lack of provisions and decimated by the plague they had contracted in the city of Seleucia.

The marcoman war

The Germanic peoples of northern Europe, especially the Goths and Gepids, began a massive southward migration during the early 160s.

Conflicts for territorial control with established peoples generated much pressure on the borders of the Roman Empire.

For several years, the Germanic peoples attacked the Roman positions with little success; but the beginning of the war against Parthia, in which the European legions moved towards Syria and Armenia, weakened the defending forces.

First confrontation

At the end of 166, an army with about 6,000 men composed of Lombards, Lacringios, Bears and Ubios, invaded Upper Pannonia.

Although they were easily defeated by Candido's infantry and Vindex's cavalry, Governor Marco Ialio Baso negotiated peace terms with 11 Germanic tribes, mediated by the Marcoman king Balomar.

These negotiations did not reach any definitive agreement, and in 167 the Vandals and Sarmatians invaded Dacia and killed Governor Calpurnio Proculo, for which they moved the V Legion, which had participated in the war against the Parthians, to the area.

However, the Roman forces had been diminished by another fact: the Antonine plague, which had decimated the Empire and caused a drop in the number of men in the army.

Lucio's death

In 168, Marcus Aurelius and Lucio Vero left for the front to lead the first incursion into Pannonia.

They reorganized the defenses of northern Italy and recruited two new legions and crossed the Alps into Pannonia. That made the marcomans, vandals, caudos and victims cease their attacks.

During the return of the imperial army to Aquileia, the emperor Lucius Vero contracted the plague and died in January 169, so Marco Aurelio had to go to Rome for the funeral of his co-emperor.

Marco Aurelio and the army

In the autumn of that same year, Marcus Aurelius headed for Dacia to eliminate the Jazygian Sarmatians, who had killed Governor Claudio Fronto.

This movement of Roman troops was used by the Costobocos and Roxolanos to attack Thrace and the Balkans. They reached Eleusis, in Greece, very close to Athens.

In the spring of 170, under the command of General Balomar, a coalition of barbarian tribes crossed the Danube and defeated an army of 20,000 Romans at the Battle of Carnuntum, near modern Vienna.

Balomar then crossed the Alps with most of his forces and besieged Aquileia. Emperor Marcus Aurelius responded by mobilizing a new army from Rome that would join forces stationed in the Pannonians and Legions I, II, and X.

The barbarians withdrew and called for peace negotiations. Marcus Aurelius refused, and in 171 began a punitive expedition to drive the invading forces out of Roman territory.

Second confrontation

About 177 once again the Marcomanni and other Germanic tribes took up arms against the Romans. In addition, the persecution of Christians in the Lungdunum area contributed to the conflict.

Then, in 179 Marco Aurelio was, once again, at the front of the battle, but this time accompanied by his son and fellow regent, Comfortable. They put together a strategy to separate the union of the different tribes and confront them individually.

While he was preparing the final thrust to end the Marcoman wars definitively, it is believed that Marcus Aurelio contracted the plague in his camp and died in 180.

Relations with China

It is difficult to determine exactly the beginning of the relations between Rome and China. Coins minted in the 1st century have been found in present-day Vietnam, as well as from the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius.

The first Roman embassy

According to records found in the books of the Han dynasty, the first Roman embassy in China reached its destination in 166 and claimed to represent "Andun" (the Chinese name given to "Antoninus").

This has caused confusion, as it is not clear whether the mission was sent by Antonino Pío or Marco Aurelio, who also had that name. What is known is that the envoys reached their destination five years after the death of Antonino Pío.

The embassy was directed to Emperor Huan of the Han. They entered Chinese territory from the south (Tonkin or Jinan) and loaded the Emperor of China with ivory and turtle shells among their presents, as well as an astronomy treatise made in Rome.

Others have speculated that this group was actually made up of private traders in search of goods of value to the West.

In spite of everything, it is thought that the true point of trade, especially in relation to Chinese silk, was carried out on the coasts of India, where many traces of the Roman passage have been found.

Philosopher emperor

According to Plato's ideas, which were embodied in The Republic, kings had to become philosophers or vice versa. A philosopher king had to possess a love of wisdom, simplicity in his ways, intelligence and inspire confidence.

According to many, Marcus Aurelius fulfilled the characteristics of the ideal sovereign that Plato had envisioned. His performance as emperor was not overshadowed by his passion for philosophy, but the latter enriched the former.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, R. Graves, via Wikimedia Commons

He was called "the philosopher" and some sources assure that the philosophical vocation of Marco Aurelio did not stop in simple words or in pure knowledge, but that it transcended in all aspects of his life, which forged a character that protected him from the excesses.

Comfortable is considered a slight for the ideas that his father professed, since Stoicism seeks a life full of dedication and respect, quite the opposite of the last Antonine's way of behaving.

Work

Thanks to his text called Meditations, Marcus Aurelius was one of the main representatives of Stoic philosophy. The original title of the work is not known, but it was of great relevance to the thinking of various monarchs, politicians and philosophers behind him.

Marcus Aurelius developed his text in Koine Greek. That decision was not fortuitous, but for the Romans that was the common language to deal with philosophical matters at the time. The work was originally written in 12 volumes.

When Marco Aurelio was in the midst of constant military conflicts, between the years 170 and 180, he took the time to create his work, which is thought to have been made in different parts of the Roman Empire.

Style and ideas

The style and language used by the philosopher emperor was very much in line with the Stoic doctrine: simple and direct. The topics addressed by him are those that have most occupied philosophers, such as life, being, morals and ethics.

Marco Aurelio stated that one's own judgment should be subjected to a thorough analysis, so as to achieve a universal perspective. In addition, he advocated that adherence to ethical principles be maintained.

Likewise, the emperor considered it of great importance that men could achieve the domain of reason over emotions.

Christendom and Marcus Aurelius

During the development of the Christian faith, the followers of this new religious doctrine were constantly persecuted by the Romans, who considered them a destabilizing entity of the status quo.

It has been argued that during the government of Marco Aurelio the cruelty against Christians increased, so that the number of people who were persecuted increased and the punishments became more fierce.

However, it was never fully clarified if that change had been dictated by the emperor or was a spontaneous move made by subordinates who were in charge of dealing with the problem within Roman borders.

It is believed that the legal status that applied to Christians in which they could be punished, but not persecuted, imposed since the time of Trajan, remained in force during the reign of Marcus Aurelius.

Some authors, such as Justin Martyr, indicated that Marcus Aurelius advocated for the practitioners of Christianity before the Roman Senate and that he alleged that one day one of them saved his troops on the battlefield.

Representations

Marcus Aurelius was one of the most celebrated Roman rulers in history. There are numerous representations between busts and statues that show the emperor at different stages of his life.

Of the images and representations of Marcus Aurelius, from the Antonine dynasty, one of those that held a more important place in history was his bronze equestrian statue, which became a benchmark for this genre.

During the Middle Ages, with the rise of the Catholic Church, many of the representations of Roman emperors that were made in materials such as bronze were destroyed, so that their composition was used to adorn churches and create images of saints.

However, the statue showing Marcus Aurelius on horseback was preserved due to a confusion: it was thought that the one represented was Constantine I the Great, who was the emperor who embraced the Catholic faith and began to promote Christianity in Rome.

Another of the great works in which the legacy of the philosopher emperor endured was in the column of Marcus Aurelius, in which his military victories were reflected. At the top of that monument there used to be a statue of the monarch that was removed in 1589.

References

1. En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Marcus Aurelius. Available at: en.wikipedia.org.
2. Crook, J. (2019). Marcus Aurelius - Biography, Meditations, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: britannica.com.
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4. Tulane.edu. (2019). Roman Currency of the Principate. Available at: web.archive.org.
5. Stanton, G. (1969). Marcus Aurelius, Emperor and Philosopher. History: Zeitschrift Für Alte Geschichte, 18 (5), 570-587.