MIDDLE AGES: ORIGIN, CHARACTERISTICS, STAGES, FEUDALISM - HISTORY

The Middle Ages was an important period in the history of mankind that spanned eleven centuries; from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 AD) to the discovery and conquest of America in 1492. Other historians place the end in 1453, with the fall of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks. It is one of the three main epochs into which the European world can be divided: classical antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Modern Age.

The Middle Ages ended one of the most troublesome periods for humanity: The Dark Ages. During this period, a lack of governmental order in most European countries caused a decline in societies, high mortality rates, damage to large Roman buildings, and a halt in agricultural activities.

Source: pixabay.com

The new social order established during this period allowed for a resurgence in crafts, arts, and civil organization, marking an obvious change in the way Europeans lived.

The Carolingian Empire, commanded by the conqueror Charlemagne (Carlo “The Great), is considered the main person in charge of the governmental organization in Europe. During their conquests, the various European civilizations changed their way of life and reinvented themselves towards a stage of modernity.

Origin and historical context

Around 500 AD. C., the structure of European society was in a rather precarious state. Diseases raged across the continent, killing many relatively young people, causing birth rates to drop sharply.

The Roman Empire had already been divided into the Western Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). The Western Empire was on the brink of collapse, which finally occurred in 476, the date when the first barbarian king of the Empire was established after the fall of the last Roman emperor.

However, little by little a new period of dynamic change began in Europe, which reached its maximum representation with the control of the Carolingian Empire over Europe.

After the control of the Carolingians, the systems of government began to be defined more specifically and the European countries reached a new order based on the laws of the new empire.

Barbarian domain

Source: Peter Johann Nepomuk Geiger

The rule that the barbarian tribes exercised over the Western Roman Empire lasted for more than 300 years. During this period, Roman culture fractured; some barbarians adopted the traditions of the empire's citizens, while others broke away from them.

The Empire remained, to a certain extent, alive. However, it did not have a definite ruler (beyond the controlling barbarians) during the 300 years of barbarian rule.

The barbarian empire of the Huns also had a large part of Europe under its control. All this had put the continent in a delicate situation, which began to improve significantly in the 8th century with the clear dominance of the Carolingian Empire.

characteristics

Predominance of agriculture in the economy

Agriculture and animal husbandry was one of the main sources of wealth in the Middle Ages, it was the basis of the economy and the main provider of wealth.

Each family lived in small villages or communities where the villagers worked the land for their own food and to pay tribute to the Feudal Lord. Owning land was what made men rich.

Before the Middle Ages, trade had been very important, especially during the Roman Empire, but it was declining with the arrival of the Germanic peoples and then with the emergence of the Muslim Empire.

Continual wars and invasions

Because the possession of land was a key and primordial factor for economic growth, wars and invasions became a common problem in the society of that time. Everyone wanted to conquer more lands to gain more power.

Therefore, they lived long periods of war because the feudal lords usually disputed the territorial dominions.

Climate improvement

In the Middle Ages, an optimal climatic improvement was witnessed, between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, with sufficient rainfall and mild temperatures. This improved the environment and facilitated the development of the population's activities in all aspects.

Demographic increase

The tools to accurately calculate the increase in population at that time are scarce, but according to the information collected by historians, it increased considerably in the 11th and 12th centuries, from an average of 40 million people to 75 million. people for the year 1250.

This change and demographic increase offered a greater labor force and demanded greater economic development.

Technological advances

Extensive technological advances were presented, which were fundamental to make agricultural expansion possible and improve living conditions in general terms.

The main technological advances were: replacement of the wooden plow, use of plowshares and moldboard, among many others.

Theocentrism

Source: Jean Fouquet, Tours, Sacre de Charlemagne Grandes Chroniques de France

The church intervened in all aspects of the life of the settlers, both public and private. She was the figure in charge of imposing divine order and the fear of God above all things.

For the most part, the culture was influenced by the Catholic Church, which imposed its doctrine categorically and according to the Bible. The center of everything was in God and the Bible, a situation that prevented the possibility of advancing in scientific and social matters.

Limited cultural activity

During these centuries, only the conservation and systematization of what had already been created took place, the common thing was to copy and comment on previously created works, without generating new ones.

Medieval literature as a reflection of its society and mentality

They attached great importance to oral transmission, much of it was disseminated through recitation, especially since most of the population was illiterate.

As a consequence of religious influence, literature was used to influence listeners in a didactic or moralizing way. It served as propaganda for the values of a king or people.

Construction of castles and fortifications

During the 1000s and 1500s, a large number of castles were built in order to defend the feudal lords and control their possessions. These constituted the base of military operations and allowed them to react better to threats.

Catholic Division

The Apostolic and Roman Catholic Church faced a long crisis and in 1378, after the death of Pope Gregory XI, the Catholic Church faced a division with two papal sees.

The successor chosen by the Roman cardinals was the Italian Urban VI, but some dissident cardinals differed from this decision and proclaimed Clement VII. Therefore, there were two papal sees at the same time, one in Rome and one in Avignon.

The merchant

Source: Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry, Octobre the Musée Condé, Chantilly Between 1412 and 1416 and circa 1440.

Trade was strengthened in the Middle Ages, which generated the formation of a new class of professional merchants or merchants. Through this new trade, agricultural activity took on a secondary role.

These merchants originally emerged in Europe and most were of rural origin. They left the countryside due to the increase in population and lack of land to change to a wandering and adventurous lifestyle.

At first they only traveled small distances to sell their products (beer, salt, honey, wool, cereals) for fear of the bandits they might encounter on the road, who frequently assaulted them.

They were called “dusty feet” and they began to expand their horizons using pack animals and four-wheeled carts pulled by horses or oxen, in other cases they also used waterways and maritime routes.

They expanded the products for sale, they were no longer only basic necessities, but began to trade luxury products such as perfumes, spices, dyes, etc.

From the 14th century on, these merchants became sedentary in view of the increasing volume of their merchandise, which made it difficult for them to move from fair to fair.

Creation of (trade) fairs

Taking into account that commercial activity expanded considerably in the course of the 13th century, within this environment, fairs began to be presented, which were large markets located in areas of contact between Mediterranean and Nordic trade.

They were not permanent markets, they took place at certain times of the year and lasted several days.

Stages

Middle Ages

Capitulation of Granada, Catholic Monarchs and Boabdil (1492)

The Late Middle Ages is a period in history that ranges from the 11th to the 15th century, although there are small differences of opinion among historians about the exact dates. This is the second half within the traditional division of the medieval period, whose first centuries are called the High Middle Ages.

During the early Middle Ages, the social organization of Europe was in a completely broken state. After the barbarian rule over the western Romans, the empire was subdivided into small kingdoms whose power and organization did not compare to that of the Romans for many centuries.

From this division, new, weaker kingdoms emerged, such as the Visigoths in the Iberian Peninsula and the Saxons in England.

Also, this period witnessed Muslim expansions. The Arabs established dominance in North Africa and many parts of the Mediterranean, in addition to gaining territory in Spain.

The Early Middle Ages brought with it the rise of monastic life, an impulse that people had to withdraw from society to dedicate themselves to religious life. During the 8th century, a new architectural style developed to accompany this movement: Romanesque architecture, which resembled Roman constructions.

Carolingian Empire transition

Source: alipaiman

The Carolingian Empire emerged as an official power after they took control of two great kingdoms of the time, previously dominated by the Merovingians. Control was achieved by the leader of the Carolingians, Pepin III, with the support of the Pope.

After his death, the kingdom passed into the hands of Charlemagne, one of his sons. Charlemagne dedicated himself to unifying a large part of Europe under the Carolingian banner, which allowed the organized culture of his dynasty to spread throughout the continent.

Charlemagne was crowned Emperor in 800. By this time, he established a new system of dominance through diplomats who asserted their authority throughout the kingdom.

It was during this stage of Carolingian rule that Europe once again had a clear direction when it came to its political ideas. This period can be considered the most important of the Middle Ages due to the organizational significance that it brought with it.

In fact, the term "Carolingian Renaissance" is used to refer to the revival of the arts, literature, architecture, and jurisprudence that took place in this period.

High Middle Ages

Charlemagne and the Pope

The High Middle Ages is the name given to the first centuries of the so-called Middle Ages. It is considered that it begins after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, in the year 476, and lasts until approximately the 11th century.

After the dissolution of the Carolingian Empire, the High Middle Ages was characterized by an urbanizing movement in Europe, which was accompanied by an increase in military forces. This occurred during the 11th and 13th centuries.

This stage also had as one of its main characteristics a significant increase in the population. This was a consequence of the new order that the cities had and the marked organization of the development of society.

By the beginning of the 13th century, most of the large cities were in the middle of the continent. These, in turn, were connected by road and river systems.

Trade had an equally significant growth. The Italian cities (which acted independently of each other), became economic centers for the Mediterranean.

It is considered that this stage of history was responsible for shaping the western European countries that exist today, such as France, Spain and England. At this stage of the Middle Ages, the kings of these countries were consolidated as rulers and the countries were unified under the same flag.

Late Middle Ages

Between the 10th and 15th centuries approximately, much of the North Atlantic suffered a climatic anomaly that produced a rise in temperatures. That excess heat caused crops to be lost and famine soon arrived.

'The triumph of death', by Pieter Bruegel the Elder / Public domain

To this, during this stage, the expansion of the Black Death, the largest pandemic that humanity has known, was added, taking between 25 and 50 million lives in Europe alone. In addition, it is estimated that up to 200 million people could become ill.

In absolute terms, of the 80 million inhabitants in Europe in 1347, only 30 remained in 1353. A demographic disaster that has only been overcome in the future with the world wars of the 20th century.

, via Wikimedia Commons

However, this stage saw the consolidation of Christian kingdoms and today's nation-states assumed much greater importance during the Late Middle Ages.

The Hundred Years War was fought in this period. Its development is considered to have helped the kingdoms of France and England to strengthen as a result of the fighting. New weapons and tactics of warfare were adopted by many European nations.

This stage also had the Church as a controversial protagonist. It was during this period that the ecclesiastical ability to grant indulgences was monetized, causing the rise of Lutheranism, Anabaptism, and Calvinism.

Society

The social structure in the Middle Ages was linked to the rise of feudalism. People of high society were monks and noble aristocrats, who made up the upper class. Barons were people who controlled the king's lands, and they possessed a great deal of state power.

On the other hand, the serfs and commoners made up the working part of society. This class was the most predominant and in turn the one who had to work the hardest. About 90% of the inhabitants of each feudal society belonged to the lower class.

Medieval society can be seen as a society divided into classes, the separation of which was in the hands of the king.

Society was clearly divided pyramidal into social classes, with a hierarchical social structure. It was specifically divided into:

The king: he was also a feudal lord, the most powerful, everyone else had to abide by his will.
The church: God's representative on earth, was at the height of medieval society. The feudal lords were the only ones who questioned their power.
The nobility: made up of the feudal lords, they had their own military force and were the owners of the land.
The peasantry: agricultural production depended on this group, it was the most exploited sector. Free peasants worked on leases of parcels of land and for that reason had to pay taxes. On the other hand, the serfs were part of the feudal property.

Feudalism

Source: Hegodis

During the Middle Ages, the slave production model was displaced by the feudal production model, a new system emerged based on vassalage and servility, the birth of feudalism took place and this system spanned from the 9th to the 15th century..

Through this system, a bilateral obligation of obedience and service is created, on the one hand there is a "vassal", a free man who commits himself and forces him to perform a service for a so-called "lord", who is nothing more than a man equally free, but more powerful.

The origin of the word feudalism comes from the action in which the king granted large tracts of land, called "fiefdoms", to the nobles and warriors.

The nobles and warriors (lords) put the peasants (vassals) to work on these lands and appointed managers to make them produce and they had to comply with obedience.

Most of the collected production was given to the feudal lord and the workers or peasants were offered in exchange the possibility of living on those lands under their protection, in the event of an enemy invasion.

The fiefdom was not simply a land domain under certain conditions, there were different types of fiefdom depending on the circumstances, among some of them we can find:

Alodial: not redeemable.
Chamber: represented the Treasury of the lord, property or manor, this type of fief was entirely related to money.
Franco - Awarded without gifts or personnel.
Ecclesiastical: delivered by the church to one of its members.
Improper: Generally, the fiefdoms had to meet a series of rules and characteristics, but in this case, it is inappropriate because it lacked some characteristics to fulfill.
Lay: delivered by princes or secular lords, it differs from ecclesiastical in that they are not part of the church's assets but of the priest or bishop himself.
Ligio: the feudatario had to end as a subordinate of his lord.
Own: fully complied with all rigorous standards.
Straight: he had personal service or gift for the one who delivered the fiefdom.
Reversible: it could be returned if necessary.
Soldier: it consisted of offering an income from urbanization, for trades or urban rates.

The Feudal Lord or "Lord"

The feudal lord was the monarch who headed the government of a kingdom. This was the only one capable of establishing control over any territory that was located within the kingdom. In addition, he was the one who decided who should be given control over the kingdom's territories. That is, the feudal lord was capable of appointing vassals.

The vassals

The vassals followed the feudal lord in succession of importance within a kingdom. The vassals were given control of certain territories, in exchange for benefits that they had to pay the feudal lord.

These vassals could be appointed only by the king, or by another vassal who has been granted the authority to do this by the king himself.

Commoners

The commoners made up all the lower classes of the feudal societies of the Middle Ages. This class included slaves (with whom it was legal to trade), serfs (who were free, but had no political rights), and free men (who had some political rights and owned small lands).

Artisans and merchants usually fell into the category of "free men." In many cases, they had their own stores and were members of society respected by most commoners.

Middle Ages in Europe

The Middle Ages can be considered as the transitional period that existed in Europe from ancient times to modernity. This stage encompasses the entire formative process of current countries and the cultural change that western European regions experienced as a result of incessant invasions.

The Middle Ages was a phenomenon that occurred particularly in Europe. Other parts of the world also experienced long periods of transition to modernity, but this refers to the one that was reflected in the European kingdoms.

At some point, historians considered this period as a set of years in which ignorance, superstition and social oppression were what ruled the European world.

However, it was the dynamic value of this period that made Europe a cultural unit unlike any other in the world.

Furthermore, it was in this period that Europe became, for the most part, a Christian region. This put an end to a great number of pagan beliefs, particularly those brought with them by the barbarian invaders and later the Vikings.

Kings in the Middle Ages

King George signing Magna Carta

Kings played an important role in the development of medieval societies. It is considered that the dominance that they managed to establish in their countries allowed the cultural unification that gave rise to the nations of today.

During the Middle Ages, European nations were controlled by systems of kings and emperors. In other words, the current government systems (such as democratic ones) had not yet developed. Some of the most important kings that the Middle Ages had in Europe were:

Charlemagne

Source: Albrecht Dürer

Charlemagne can be considered one of the most important kings of the Middle Ages due to the role he played in the unification of Europe. He was able, thanks to his high skill as a military commander, to annex parts of Spain, Germany and Italy to his kingdom.

In addition, he created a very advanced system of government for the time and much more superior to that which previously existed in Europe. This organization during his rule allowed the great Carolingian Empire to hold together despite its vast size.

Thanks to its educational systems, several of the most important works of the early medieval stages were developed. Greek and Roman culture also survived thanks to the preservation of knowledge established in their empire.

He knew how to keep the Carolingian domination alive after his death, since he effectively ceded power to his children. He is one of the most important monarchs in the history of Europe and the world.

Edward III

Source: William Bruges (1375–1450)

Edward III was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1327 until his death in 1377. His rise to power also marked the beginning of the Hundred Years' War, and his many sons led to the emergence of diverse cultures throughout England.

Furthermore, during his rule of the British throne, English became the main language spoken by everyone in England. Until the beginning of the 14th century, the nobility used to use French as the main language, but Edward III caused the texts to begin to be written in English.

Although his government was not characterized by particularly kind actions, the pragmatism he used to control the country allowed England to experience significant growth.

He was a king very loved by the people, and this was evidenced by the behavior of his five children. Neither of them tried to conspire against their father, something that used to happen quite commonly in medieval England.

Frederick II

Source: De arte venandi cum avibus (The art of hunting with birds). From a manuscript in Biblioteca Vaticana, Pal. lat 1071), late 13th century

Frederick II, also known as Frederick the Great, was one of the most influential kings in history. He was King of Sicily from 1198, King of Germany from 1212 and King of Italy and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 1220.

He was a person with a high cultural capacity, and he was able to speak six languages. His abilities were recognized for the time.

The policies that he applied during his government were based on principles that later became the pillars of modern society. Among these policies, he highlighted religious freedom, mass education, administrative efficiency and free trade.

He allowed Italian literature to enter a golden period and created the first state university in the history of mankind, the University of Naples.

He dedicated his government to consolidate himself as Roman Emperor and fought against the power exercised by the popes. This led to his excommunication from the church. He was a very capable leader, but his death did not allow his ideals to be fully consolidated in Europe.

Education

Source: Detail of portrait of Hugh de Provence, 1352, painted by Tomasso da Modena in 1352

The educational theme during the Middle Ages was not easy to maintain as a result of the constant conflicts that broke out in Europe. In fact, after the end of the Roman era and the beginning of barbaric rule, Roman educational institutions had ceased to exist.

The politicians of the time came to power mainly through wars and armed conflicts. This made education take a secondary role, while military strategy rose as the main tool of power.

A large part of the culture of Europe during the Middle Ages (particularly in the western part of the continent) was influenced by Roman and Germanic culture.

However, the Catholic Church never stopped having influence. Catholic believers were primarily responsible for shaping the great educational systems during the Middle Ages.

The pagan schools began to be closed by means of ecclesiastical influences. Religious schools and educational centers gained strength; the main educators became the priests or archbishops of European religious sites. This made education revolve around the Catholic religion throughout the Middle Ages.

Lessons

As was human custom centuries ago, not all people had education at their fingertips. Usually, priests and monks educated the children of people belonging to the higher classes of society.

The main reason for this was that commoners had to work hard to survive. Education passed to a secondary level; it was nothing more than a luxury for the lower classes of feudal society.

The money that the Church asked for to educate young people was very high for ordinary people, which did not allow them to pay for an educational service.

Educational structure

The structure of education during the Middle Ages was also completely influenced by the Church. Basic traditional studies were a conglomerate made up of religion, mathematics, philosophy, grammar, logic, and other pure and social sciences.

The monks' teachings were primarily philosophical and not based on hard facts. Students, during the Middle Ages, gained practical knowledge when they came into contact with hunters and other people not related to the Catholic Church.

Culture and traditions

Source: Someone playing the vielle. Cantigas de Santa Maria, about 1300.

As a consequence of the cultural mixes caused by migration and social changes brought about by the fall of the Roman Empire, the culture of the Middle Ages was a mix of many other cultures.

These cultures were promoted by feudal lords and kings. Weddings, for example, were socially accepted. However, the role of women was quite exclusive: they had to work hard to obtain money to survive with their partner.

Marriages of the nobility used to be ostentatious. Banquets and parties were held with a large number of animals whose consumption was considered a luxury.

Christmas fairs used to be held during the holiday season in many of the kingdoms, given the great influence of Christianity throughout Europe.

Furthermore, it was common for the nobility to wear flashy clothing and to emphasize beauty, particularly women.

Inventions and discoveries in the Middle Ages

Not everything was "dark" at this time in history, since science was able to advance despite the difficulties posed by beliefs and ideas and the greatest desire for conquest. Some of the most relevant inventions of the Middle Ages had quite a significant importance in the course of history:

Print

The most outstanding invention of the Middle Ages and one of the most important in history. It was developed by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450, causing much more than the rapid copying of a manuscript, but it changed religious conceptions or generated the appearance of the first public libraries.

Glasses

Almost ending the thirteenth century, people's optics changed radically with the appearance of glasses. There is no consensus on the inventor of such a precious object, but it is known that it changed the lives of many people with vision problems.

Gunpowder

From China the most powerful weapon that has existed until practically today was developed. In Europe they were introduced by the Arab Byzantines around 1200 and, although their purposes were as an explosive for fireworks, the reality is that they changed the course of the war.

The compass

It was also developed in China to determine directions at sea. It consisted of a magnetized needle inserted into a vessel, much more rudimentary than those that later reached Europe and the rest of the world.

See main article: inventions of the Middle Ages.

End and consequences

The end of the Middle Ages was marked by the rise of the Renaissance. The Renaissance can even be considered one of the main consequences of the Middle Ages.

However, some historians consider the capture of Constantinople or the invention of the printing press as more specific events to determine the end of the Middle Ages and the transition to modernity. Other historians consider that the Conquest of America was the end, since it meant a more globalized world and the beginning of an important period of colonialism. In any case, the Modern Age was given way, which was a more prosperous scientifically and culturally.

During the Renaissance period, the Middle Ages began to be considered as a period where the word of the Church was given priority over reason. This occurred as a consequence of the influences of Catholicism on a large part of the States in the world.

The main consequence of the Middle Ages, however, was the emergence of new architectural, cultural, social and economic styles that came to shape the Renaissance and the Enlightenment.

Most of all these changes not only occurred as a consequence of the Middle Ages, but they shared similar characteristics with the artistic and social currents of this time.

References

Characteristics of the Middle Ages. (2014). Extracted from features.org.
Encyclopedia of Features. (2016). 10 Characteristics of the Middle Ages. Extracted from caracteristicas.org.
About History. The middle ages. Extracted from sobrehistoria.org.
About History. Feudalism in the Middle Ages. Extracted from sobrehistoria.org.
Social did. Economy of the Middle Ages Extracted from socialhizo.com.
Middle Ages, The Columbia Encyclopedia 6th Edition, 2018. Taken from encyclopedia.com
Middle Ages, The New World Encyclopedia, 2014. Taken from newworldencyclopedia.org
The Middle Ages, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018. Taken from Britannica.com
Overview: The Middle Ages, 1154 - 1485, BBC Report by Tom James, 2011. Taken from bbc.co.uk
Middle Ages Customs, S. Newman in The Finer Times: Excellence in Content, 2015. Taken from thefienrtimes.com
Society in the Middle Ages, S. Newman in The Finer Times: Excellence in Content, 2015. Taken from thefienrtimes.com
History of Europe, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018. Taken from Britannica.com
Education in the Middle Ages, S. Newman in The Finer Times: Excellence in Content, 2015. Taken from thefienrtimes.com
Late Middle Ages, S. Newman in The Finer Times: Excellence in Content, 2015. Taken from thefienrtimes.com.

MIDDLE AGES: ORIGIN, CHARACTERISTICS, STAGES, FEUDALISM - HISTORY - 2025