- Stages
- Lower Palaeolithic
- Middle Palaeolithic
- Superior paleolithic
- characteristics
- Climatic variations during the Paleolithic
- Human evolution
- Lifestyle
- Beliefs in the Paleolithic
- Art in the Paleolithic
- Paleolithic weaponry
- Paleolithic Inventions and Tools
- Stone: the first material
- Stages in stone carving
- Bone
- Inventions during the Lower Paleolithic
- Inventions during the Middle Paleolithic
- Inventions during the Upper Palaeolithic
- The fire
- The bifaces
- Hand axes
- Spear tips
- Knives
- Economy
- First hominids
- Division of labour
- Exchanges
- Social organization
- Egalitarian societies
- Wars
- References
The Paleolithic was a period of Prehistory that began about 2.59 million years ago. Its name means "ancient stone" and was devised by John Lubbock in 1865. This period is the longest in human existence, since it lasted until approximately 12,000 years ago.
Along with the Mesolithic and Neolithic, the Paleolithic is part of the Stone Age. In turn, it is subdivided into three different phases: the Upper Paleolithic, the Middle and the Lower. This categorization is based on the type of archaeological remains that have been found in the sites
Homo habilis Skull - Source: Daderot under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication license.
During the Paleolithic, the human species underwent a great transformation. Thus, hominids began to evolve until they reached the physical and mental characteristics of modern man. On the other hand, human groups had not yet adopted a sedentary lifestyle, but moved from one place to another seeking the best conditions for survival.
The evolution of human beings also led them to be able to manufacture more complex tools and with increasingly diverse materials. Many of these utensils were used for hunting and fishing, activities that, along with gathering, were the basis of the diet of primitive societies.
Stages
The Paleolithic had its beginning about 2.59 million years ago, when Homo habilis, the first representative of the genus Homo on Earth, appeared. Its completion is marked by the time that humans learned to control agriculture and develop new techniques for working with stone.
Within the chronological division of Prehistory, the Paleolithic is the first phase of the Stone Age. The other two were the Mesolithic and the Neolithic, after which the Metal Age began.
In turn, experts have divided the Paleolithic into three periods: the Lower, the Middle and the Upper. All the knowledge about this stage comes from the remains found in the different sites. Their study has allowed us to know what kind of tools they used, what they ate, or even that it was at this stage when fire was discovered.
One of the important aspects in the evolution of the first human groups was the climate. During the Paleolithic, the planet was in an ice age, which made survival more difficult. At the end of the period, the weather began to heat up, something that favored the end of nomadism and the emergence of agriculture.
Lower Palaeolithic
Reproduction of an Australopithecus afarensis in Cosmocaixa, Barcelona, Catalunya.
Experts agree to mark its beginning around 2,600,000 BC, but there are many differences about its completion. Thus, the dates indicated range from 250,000 BC to 15,000 BC.
During this stage there were up to four glacial periods in the northern hemisphere. This cold climate was one of the causes that forced the first humans to live inside caves. In addition, it also made food scarce, causing groups to have to move every so often.
In the Lower Paleolithic, Homo habilis appeared in an area located in East Africa. In order to survive, it is organized into family groups of about 15 or 20 individuals.
Another important type of hominin that lived during this period was Homo erectus. The clans they formed were much older and their tools became more complex. Both factors allowed them to expand their ability to capture prey for food. The consumption of more animal proteins caused them to acquire greater intelligence.
At the end of the Lower Paleolithic, one of the most important discoveries in the entire history of mankind occurred: fire. At first, humans could only take advantage of it when it was generated naturally, but, over time, they learned to handle it.
Middle Palaeolithic
Skull cast of H. neanderthalensis from La Ferrassie cave, France. Source: 120
As with the previous period, the dates of the beginning and end of the Middle Palaeolithic vary greatly depending on the region of the planet. In general terms, experts point out that it lasted until 30,000 BC.
The most important geographical areas in terms of human activity were Europe and the Middle East. It was in this period when the Neanderthal appeared, already within the genus Homo sapiens.
There is also evidence that confirms the presence of Cro-Magnon man, with characteristics practically the same as modern man, in some Asian regions.
The two species had to face very harsh environmental conditions due to the glacial periods that characterized this time. This caused that most of the vegetation was typical of the tundra.
On the other hand, the greater cranial capacity allowed human beings to make more complex tools. Remains have been found that show that they were already capable of making composite utensils, joining stone with wood.
Other remains prove that they had begun to use techniques to preserve meat. Likewise, they also began to fish, especially in the rivers that they encountered.
It was then that the first human beings showed their first religious beliefs, especially related to burials.
Superior paleolithic
Reconstruction of a house from the Upper Palaeolithic. Source: Michal Maňas
The stage that ended the Paleolithic and gave way to the Mesolithic began around 30,000 BC and ended 20,000 years later.
At the beginning of this phase, the Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons coincided in Europe. The cohabitation lasted for about 10,000 years, until, for unknown reasons, the former became extinct.
These hominids were still nomads, gatherers, and hunters. Soon, the groups began to expand, although still based only on family relationships.
The Upper Palaeolithic was a stage during which the human being underwent an important transformation. Among other facets, they began to perfect the technique for carving the stone and, in addition, new tools made with bones emerged.
Precisely, bone was the main raw material for the manufacture of throwing weapons. These were a great advance, since they allowed to hunt animals more safely, without having to get too close. Many of those hunts were reflected in the cave paintings with which they adorned the cave walls.
Finally, humans started a new activity: agriculture. Although it would still take years for them to dominate it and become the basis for the transition to sedentary lifestyle, they have already begun to plant and take advantage of the harvests of some products.
characteristics
Painting by Heinrich Harder.
As noted, the Paleolithic is the longest time in the history of the human species. This causes each phase of that period to have its own characteristics, although some common to all of them can be drawn.
The name of this period, Paleolithic (Ancient Stone) comes from the first material that the primitive human being used. At first, he only picked them up from the ground to use, but little by little he learned to carve them at will.
One of the most important aspects of the Paleolithic was the evolution of the human being himself. During these thousands of years, he changed physically, learned to make new tools, discovered how to handle fire, and began to manifest religious beliefs.
Climatic variations during the Paleolithic
Satellite image of a glacier. Source: NASA
The axis of the Earth underwent some variations during the Paleolithic, which significantly affected the climate. During this period there were up to four glaciations that totally changed the characteristics of large areas of the planet.
The first human beings had to learn to survive in those harsh cold conditions. A good part of the way of life of these hominids was due to that very unfavorable climate, started by the need to live inside the caves.
Human evolution
Source: Human_evolution_scheme.svg: M. Gardederivative work: Gerbil
On the one hand, experts point out that there is a fairly exact correlation between the types of hominids and the phases into which the Paleolithic is divided. Thus, Homo habilis, which resided in Africa, was the most important during the Lower Paleolithic.
The next phase was characterized by the presence of Neanderthal Man in Europe and the Middle East. Finally, the Upper Paleolithic brought with it the rule of the Cro-Magnon Man.
Regarding the temporal and geographical evolution, the first hominids (Homo habilis and Homo ergaster) were originally from the African continent. It was the second that began to migrate out of Africa, reaching as far away as present-day Georgia.
For its part, Homo erectus appeared in Asia and survived until modern humans ended its presence.
Meanwhile, the hominids that had reached Europe continued their evolution until Homo heidelbergensi appeared first, and the Neardental, later.
The latter, which reached the European continent about 200,000 years ago, had some characteristics similar to those of modern man. At the same time, Homo sapiens, the current human species, emerged in Africa, although it would not reach Europe until about 50,000 years ago.
Lifestyle
Source: Charles R. Knight
The way of life of the hominids that lived during the Paleolithic era was nomadic. Normally, they formed small family clans of between 12 and 20 people and moved looking for the best place to survive. This type of association favored the appearance of the concept of family.
The low temperatures forced those groups to have to look for caves in which to stay. Sometimes, during the summers of the interglacial times, they built some huts taking advantage of the skins and bones of the animals, leaves and reeds.
The Paleolithic population fed on the fruits and vegetables they collected. As for meat, at first they were scavengers and, later, they began to hunt until this activity became their most important source of protein.
Although agriculture did not develop until the arrival of the Neolithic, some findings seem to show that these hominids were able to practice limited horticulture. Not having the proper utensils and bad weather prevented them from going further in this activity.
From the Middle Paleolithic, always according to the remains found, the first men began to obtain food from rivers and coastal areas. Most of the time, they were just mollusks whose shells broke with the stones they had turned into tools.
Beliefs in the Paleolithic
Paleolithic Venus. Source: User: MatthiasKabel
It is not possible to know the moment in which the first human beings began to have religious or transcendental beliefs. Thanks to the deposits, it is known that the oldest rites were related to burials, which suggests that they developed a kind of veneration for their ancestors.
Although mass graves have also been found, experts say they used to bury their dead. Afterwards, a stone slab was placed and offerings were made to honor them. Those who most developed these ceremonies were the Neanderthals, who even decorated the slabs that covered the tombs.
Art in the Paleolithic
Altamira cave. Yvon fruneau
The evidences on the existence of art in the Paleolithic point to that it began to develop during the Superior period. It must be borne in mind that, in reality, the paintings, carvings or engraved bones had practical functions and that they were not made as an artistic expression.
Without a doubt, the best known art of this time is the cave paintings. Most of them used the walls of the caves to paint on them, although there are also examples outside.
The theme of these paintings used to be hunting. It is assumed that their authors tried to "invoke" good luck when capturing animals. Other frequent themes were human representations, although the figures used to have grotesque features. Similarly, fertility was another common motif in rock art.
In addition to these paintings, and figurines depicting women with exaggerated fertility traits, a type of movable art developed during this period. They were mobile works that were made in bones, stones or shells. An example were the paintings made on necklaces or spear points.
Paleolithic weaponry
Different weapons of the Paleolithic. Source: Лапоть
Although war was an unknown concept during the Paleolithic, humans began to make weapons very early. In this case, his goal was to have the best possible tools for hunting and fishing.
A simple stone was undoubtedly the first type of weaponry used by humans, Later, they began to sharpen those stones so that they could cut and scrape. Thus were born knives and hand axes. When wooden sticks were joined together to act as handles, these weapons improved their effectiveness.
Another milestone in this area occurred after the discovery of fire. Humans of the time realized that if they brought a sharp stick to the flames, it would end up hardening.
Before the Paleolithic ended, weapons had been greatly perfected. At that time, their owners began to make inscriptions and carvings on them to adorn and personalize them.
Paleolithic Inventions and Tools
Weapons of the Stone Age. Source: Popular Science Monthly Volume 21
Although, as noted, there were different species and cultures, the techniques for making tools did not differ much between them. Yes, on the other hand, there was an evolution in the complexity and effectiveness of these utensils.
At the beginning of the period, during the Lower Palaeolithic, hominids only had the knowledge to make simple tools.
As with weapons, the first thing that was used was a simple stone to hit with it and break bones or other objects. When the stones were broken, they could use the sharp parts to cut.
Stone: the first material
Paleolithic biface. Source: Locutus Borg
The very name of this period, Paleolithic (Ancient Stone), shows the importance that this material had for the first humans. Although they still did not know how to polish it, they soon began to carve it in various ways.
Among the most outstanding techniques for carving stone was percussion. This consisted of hitting a stone of the conchoid type, such as quartz or flint, with another harder stone or with the horns of some animal. With this process they managed to give it the desired shape.
During the Upper Palaeolithic, at the end of the period, humans learned to carve stone using pressure. With this technique more precise results were obtained. It was, for example, the best way to get cutting edges or flakes.
The tools that were first made were very simple: the carved edges. Later, they began to make hand axes or biface. Despite the name, these axes were used for multiple activities, from cutting to drilling.
The next step was the specialization of the tools. Each one began to have a specific use, as in the case of the scrapers that were used to tan hides.
Stages in stone carving
Paleolithic tools Source: Zde
Historians distinguish up to four different phases in the evolution of stone carving techniques.
The first stage occurred during the Archaic Lower Paleolithic. In this, the so-called technical mode 1 or Culture of carved edges predominated.
After this phase came the achelense or mode 2 industry, whose distinctive tool are the bifaces. The technical innovations allowed the hominids of the time to obtain 40 centimeters of edge for each kilo of rock.
The last phase (technical mode 3) took place in the Middle Palaeolithic. It was when it appeared in Mousterian and humans could achieve up to two meters of edge for every kilogram of rock.
At the end of the Paleolithic, in the Superior, there was a great improvement in stone carving. In what has been called technical mode 4, the inhabitants of the time were able to obtain 26 meters of edge for every kilo of rock.
Bone
Paleolithic bones and tools. Source: Harrygouvas at Greek Wikipedia
Although, as has been pointed out, stone was the quintessential raw material of the Paleolithic, the first humans also used other materials that were at hand.
Among these, the bones of animals that hunted or simply died around them stood out. The tools made from this material were quite varied. The most important were punches, sewing needles, thrusters, and fishing harpoons.
However, these types of utensils were quite scarce until the Upper Paleolithic, when modern humans arrived in Europe from the African continent.
Inventions during the Lower Paleolithic
Manual mill. Source: Tropenmuseum, part of the National Museum of World Cultures
During the Lower Palaeolithic, one of the most important discoveries took place: fire. However, it would not be learned to master it until later.
Around 500,000 BC, dresses began to be made using the skins of animals. About one hundred thousand years later, humans began adding pieces of wood to their stone tools, in order to make them easier to use.
Reduced-size axes have appeared in remains dating from around 250,000 BC. Shortly afterwards, biface, scrapers, spear points or knives were invented.
Inventions during the Middle Paleolithic
Paleolithic stone lamps. Source: Tyk
Percussion tools and the consequent use of that technique to carve stone was one of the most important developments during the Middle Paleolithic. This led to the manufacture of new classes of knives, scrapers or azagayas, all of superior quality.
Other utensils that appeared at this time were burins, scrapers or a few punches that made it possible to work better with skins and stones. On the other hand, around 75,000 BC there was a great technical advance in the bone industry.
Inventions during the Upper Palaeolithic
Source: Thamizhpparithi Maari
A new material came into use around 30,000 BC: clay. About the same time the bow and arrow were invented. Already near the Mesolithic, human beings greatly improved the treatment of stone, which heralded the arrival of the new technique that would characterize the Neolithic: polished stone.
The fire
Paleolithic hut and campfire representation. Source: Locutus Borg
Although it can not really be considered a tool or an invention, the learning by man of how to handle fire was a revolution at all levels, including physiological. In this sense, cooking food with fire improved the absorption of nutrients, which led to an improvement in intelligence.
It was Homo erectus that first started using fire. At first he had to limit himself to taking advantage of natural events that caused fires, but later he learned how to light it and conserve it.
Remains have been found that prove that Homo erectus began to hunt and roast its prey. In addition, this technique made the meat keep longer before spoiling.
The bifaces
Paleolithic biface. Source: Locutus Borg
One of the most characteristic utensils of the entire Paleolithic era was the biface. It was a tool made of stone, usually flint. This was carved on both sides using a technique called burin to give it a triangular shape.
The use of the biface became widespread, especially during the Upper Paleolithic. Its functions were to cut, pierce or scrape other materials, especially bone and wood.
Hand axes
Stone Age ax. Source: Muséum de Toulouse
Although many times they are confused with the biface, the hand axes were a different tool. They began to be used during the Lower Paleolithic and maintained their importance until a wooden handle was added to facilitate their use.
To make them you had to hit the stone with a hammer of the same material. With skill, it was possible to give it the desired shape and sharpen the edges.
Historians point out that its most common uses were to cut wood or meat, dig or scrape leather. Likewise, it seems that they were used to hunt or to defend themselves from the attack of animals.
Spear tips
Source: Muséum de Toulouse
The percussion technique allowed humans to go from using spears made entirely of sticks to adding tips made of flint. Thanks to this, hunting multiplied, in addition to making it less dangerous.
Knives
Polished spear smears. Source: Calame
As with spearheads, humans had to wait for percussion to be discovered before they had their first knives. Actually, it was more of a wide flake with very sharp edges.
These knives were invented in the Middle Paleolithic. Before that, sharpened and considerably less resistant pieces of wood or bone had to be used for cutting.
Economy
Photos courtesy of Christian Ziegler.
One cannot speak of the existence in this period of an economy in the modern sense. By using this concept, experts refer to activities related to obtaining goods and possible exchanges that the population will develop.
From this point of view, the economy during the Paleolithic is classified as predatory. Their base was hunting and gathering, activities with which they managed to cover all basic needs, from obtaining food to materials to make clothes.
These types of activities have evolved over time. At first, hunting was much less important than gathering, and the meat that was consumed was obtained by scavenging.
On the other hand, some authors describe the human groups formed at the time as opulent. This implies that you had their needs, or most of them, completely covered, although they always depended on nature and its changing conditions.
First hominids
Reconstruction of Homo habilis. Source: Reconstruction by W. Schnaubelt & N. Kieser (Atelier WILD LIFE ART) Photographed by User: Lillyundfreya
As noted, early types of the genus Homo, such as habilis, did not have great hunting skills. Its economy was based on the collection of the vegetables that were found around it.
These hominids only occasionally captured a small animal, such as some reptiles or birds. The rest of the meat they ate came from the dead or dying animals they found.
Even Homo erectus continued to maintain carrion as the main carnivorous food source, despite the fact that evidence has been found that it had begun to hunt and use traps to capture animals.
Homo heidelbergensis was the first type of hominid that began to hunt as a main activity. Later, Homo sapiens improved their techniques and began to fish as well.
These hominids continued to be nomads. When food in one area became scarce, groups moved to another where they could find everything they needed.
Division of labour
Representation of men hunting in the Paleolithic. Source: Source:
No evidence has been found that human groups during the Paleolithic had a system of division of labor. The only exceptions could be shamans or artisans, although it is not known for sure.
In general, each individual had to take charge of any type of work. The important thing was to survive and everyone had to contribute their skills to do so.
Until recently, most experts thought that there was some differentiation in jobs depending on the sex of the person.
Thus, it was believed that men were engaged in hunting while women were engaged in breeding and gathering. Some findings seem to disprove this idea and indicate that women also played an important role in hunting parties.
Another aspect that could cause a certain division in the works was age. However, this did not imply any kind of hierarchy within the group.
Exchanges
The exchange of food, furs and other objects was the Paleolithic form of commerce. Source: Alexo Camas
During the Paleolithic there was no concept of trade. However, there were exchanges of goods, but based on reciprocity or donation. In the latter case, the one who gave something did so without expecting anything in return. It could only mean an increase in their social prestige.
On the other hand, when the delivery of goods was based on reciprocity, the individual who made it expected to obtain some product in exchange for his. It would be, in a way, the origin of barter.
All this economic organization caused the groups to be very egalitarian, without anyone accumulating assets and, therefore, power. The cooperation was ahead of the competition, since the important thing was the survival of the clan.
Social organization
Source: Sepehr Zarei
The Paleolithic human being was, fundamentally, nomadic. The search for natural resources made him have to move from one place to another. Normally, they did it in small groups, of no more than 20 people linked by family ties.
Experts take it for granted that cultures of various types existed, from patrilineal to matrilineal. However, they assure that this did not imply that privileges or inheritances appeared.
As noted above, all members of the group had to cooperate in order to survive. The small size of these communities made it impossible for there to be specialization in work, nor its hierarchy.
Egalitarian societies
Nomads of the Paleolithic. Source: HappyMidnight
Paleolithic social groups were very egalitarian. Each member of the clan probably received the same goods, from food to tools. This does not imply that there were no differences between the prestige of each individual, but the tombs found seem to indicate that this did not translate into any type of hierarchy.
Similarly, historians point out that everyone had free access to available goods. The possession of these was communal, although the use of clothing or tools could be individual. One of the effects of this system was the little conflict present within the groups.
Wars
Paleolithic conflict representation. Source: Eduardo Hernández Pacheco
So far, no evidence has been found of war clashes between the different communities. In fact, experts point out that the vital circumstances of the time meant that there were no reasons for wars to break out, starting with the low population density.
The latest calculations estimate that the maximum population existing during the Paleolithic era was about 10 million people on the entire planet. This implies that it was difficult for the various groups to meet and that, furthermore, the struggle for resources was not necessary.
References
- Stones For. Paleolithic. Obtained from piedrapara.com
- Euston96. Paleolithic. Retrieved from euston96.com
- Ancient world. Stages of prehistory. Obtained from mundoantiguo.net
- The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Paleolithic Period. Retrieved from britannica.com
- Khan Academy. Paleolithic societies. Retrieved from khanacademy.org
- Groeneveld, Emma. Paleolithic. Retrieved from ancient.eu
- New World Encyclopedia. Paleolithic Age. Retrieved from newworldencyclopedia.org
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Paleolithic Period. Retrieved from encyclopedia.com