BATTLE OF THERMOPYLAE: ARMIES, DEVELOPMENT, CONSEQUENCES - HISTORY - 2024

The battle of Thermopylae was a warlike confrontation that occurred during the Second Medical War and whose purpose was to stop the Persian troops of Xerxes I through an alliance between Sparta and Athens; the first was defended by land and the second was kept at sea. The battle unfolded in the narrow pass of Thermopylae in 480 BC

The events of this battle reached contemporary historians thanks to the writings of Herodotus; In his work Histories (written in the 5th century BC) he recounted how this event occurred. In this event the Spartan hero Leonidas stood out along with three hundred soldiers, who defended the Thermopylae gorge to the death.

Although it was a losing battle, it was an example of good use of the terrain, teamwork and the importance of training. Source: wikipedia.org

Despite the futile attempts of the Spartans to stop Xerxes I's invasion, these soldiers are remembered in Western history for their courage and bravery, making defeat conditional on heroic death. Also, thanks to King Leonidas and his soldiers, the Greeks knew how they should attack the Persians, which allowed them to win the war.

Subsequently, the exploits of the Spartans were used to nurture and promote the nationalist and patriotic ideals that were developed during the 18th and 19th centuries. In fact, according to author Ian MacGregor, the Battle of Thermopylae is regarded as one of the most powerful symbols of excellence and virtue in European thought.

Likewise, poets such as Richard Glover and Willem Van Haren paid tribute in their verses to the patriotism and heroism of Leonidas through epic songs that were very successful in 1737 and 1742, respectively; These texts even had a political effect, since they were used to support some campaigns.

This historical fact was also remembered during the French Revolution, since at that time of liberations and battles a new interest in Greco-Latin culture and history emerged. In addition, the Battle of Thermopylae was also used as a patriotic reference during the Napoleonic wars.

In our era, the warfare between Persians and Spartans continues to generate impact and interest in many people, which has generated a series of films, comics and animations influenced by this event.

Historical background

The medical wars

The remarkable and continuous expansion of Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean resulted in the creation of colonies and important cities, such as Miletus and Halicarnassus, located in Asia Minor (what is currently Turkey).

These important cities belonged to Hellenic Ionia until they were completely taken over by the Persian Empire.

The Hellenic colonists refused to accept the Persians as their superiors, so several uprisings occurred to regain Greek autonomy. In order to appease these rebellions, the Achaemenid Empire decided to cede some autonomy to those cities in exchange for a very high tribute payment.

This did not please the Hellenes, who aspired to absolute freedom. Although they continued to revolt against the Persians, the Greeks realized that they needed the support of the other continental cities in order to stop the Asian colossus.

The Athenians decided to support the Hellenes; however, the Spartans refused at first. This event started the medical wars.

Ionian revolt and support of the city-states

The cities of Eretria and Athens decided to support the Ionians in their rebellion against Darius I, who was leading the Persian Empire.

Back then this Empire was just beginning, so it was more prone to uprisings. Darius I saw an opportunity to expand his territories and secure the colonies, so he took the Ionian revolt very seriously.

In 491 a. Darío decided to send emissaries to the cities of Greece, in order to request the peaceful delivery of the lands; In addition, in this way Darío showed his great power against the Hellenic authorities.

The battle of Marathon and the death of Darius I

However, the Athenians were offended, so they tried the Persian ambassadors and executed them. For its part, the city of Sparta decided to throw the Persian ambassadors directly into the moats, without carrying out any trial; this caused Sparta to officially join the war against Persia.

In 490 a. The forces of the Persians managed to take the island of Euboea and then go to Athens, disembarking in the Bay of Marathon.

Nonetheless, the Persians encountered a remarkable group of armed Athenians, who defeated them despite being outnumbered. With the victory of the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon, the Persians had to return to Asia. In this battle Sparta decided not to participate, since it did not have colonies in the hands of the Persians.

After the defeat of the Persian Empire, Darío decided to multiply his troops, fivefold the number of soldiers he had had during his landing in Marathon; the purpose of this was to invade Greece permanently. However, his plans were interrupted due to a revolt that occurred in Egypt in 486 BC. C.

During this rebellion Darío died, reason why his son Xerxes I assumed the throne. The new Persian emperor managed to put an end to the Egyptian revolt and decided to attack the Greek territories again.

The alliance of city-states

After Xerxes I assumed control of the Persian army, it had proposed a full and large-scale invasion, requiring long planning to accumulate the required food and weapons. He also had to take time to recruit and train his soldiers.

On the other hand, after winning the battle of Marathon, the Greeks -especially the Athenians- had decided to prepare for a possible new Persian attack, so it was decided to build a massive fleet of triremes, which were essential to succeed in the confrontation.

However, the Athenians did not have the ability to face the Persians simultaneously by sea and by land, so they urgently needed an alliance with the other Greek cities.

In 481 a. Xerxes decided to send some Persian ambassadors through all the Greek territories in order to convince the city-states to surrender; however, these emissaries did not go to Athens or Sparta.

According to the records of the historian Herodotus, the legend of Thermopylae established that the Spartans had met with the Oracle of Delphi to find out the outcome of the battle against the Persians; supposedly, the Oracle had established that Sparta either fell into the hands of the Persians, or it lost its king descendant of Heracles.

Herodotus established that Leonidas, convinced of the information that the Oracle had given him, was sure that he would die at Thermopylae, so he selected a small group of soldiers who had descendants.

Spartan celebrations

When Xerxes I managed to enter the Macedonian territories, the city of Sparta was celebrating the Carneas, a very important religious festival that prohibited the conduct of military activities. Furthermore, the Olympics were also taking place, so most Spartans would not be able to heed the war call.

The Ephors, Spartan magistrates, decided that the situation with the Persian invasion was very pressing, so they agreed that Leonidas would carry out an expedition to block the passage of Xerxes' army. Leonidas decided to take with him his best men belonging to the royal guard, known as the hippeis.

On the way to Thermopylae the Spartans received reinforcements from other villages, so they were able to increase their number to 5,000 soldiers.

When they reached the blockade, the Spanish king decided to camp in the narrowest part of the pass, since from there it would be easier to block the Persians because the terrain gave them a noticeable advantage.

Finally, the army of Xerxes was seen in the Maliac Gulf, leaving him only a few days to reach Thermopylae.

Armies

The army of the Persians

It has been complex for historians to determine the number of soldiers that were under the command of Xerxes I, since Herodotus established that the Persian king had managed to gather two million men; However, another historical source (that of the poet Simónides de Ceos) established that there were actually four million men.

On the other hand, Ctesias, a Greek physician and historian, proposed that 800,000 men were under the command of the Asian emperor.

The amount proposed by Herodotus had not been questioned, but in the 20th century the historian Hans Delbrück realized that the length of the columns of soldiers would have been very long if there were millions of people, since the last would be leaving the city of Susa when the first combatants were arriving at Thermopylae.

Consequently, historians today consider Herodotus's figures to be unreal; this was perhaps due to an exaggeration on the part of the victorious Greeks or a miscalculation on the part of ancient historians.

Thousands of soldiers

According to studies and military logic, the army of Xerxes I probably consisted of 200,000 to 300,000 men. In any case, it was still a colossal number of warriors for the media of the time and in comparison with the number of Greek soldiers.

It is also not known exactly whether Xerxes sent his entire army to the battle of Thermopylae, since it is probable that the king left a remarkable number of soldiers defending those cities that had already been won.

The only text that addresses this question is the historical record of Ctesias, where it assured that 80,000 Persians participated in that confrontation.

Army of the greeks

As for the Greek army, the figures proposed by Herodotus are more consistent. In addition, the sources of this historian are supported by Diodorus Siculus, who disagreed with Herodotus only in some numbers.

Taking both sources into account, it was possible to establish that the Greeks had 300 Spartans, 1000 Lacedonians, 900 Helots, 500 Mantineans, 500 Tegeatas and 120 Arcadians from Orcomeno, along with another 1000 Arcadians, in addition to 400 Corinthians, 200 Filuncios, 80 Mycenaeans., 700 Thespians, 1000 Malians, 400 Thebans, 1000 Phocidia and 1000 Locros.

According to these figures, the Greeks had a total of 7,400 or 7,700 soldiers, depending on the source you want to consider.

Development of the battle

The arrival expedition

When the Persians arrived at Thermopylae, they decided to send an explorer to study the territory. The Greeks, who had become aware of the presence of the Persian envoy, allowed him to come to the camp, observe them and leave.

The explorer commented to Xerxes I about the small number of Greek soldiers; Furthermore, he explained that the Spartans, instead of practicing and preparing for battle, were doing relaxation exercises and combing their hair.

Xerxes doubted this incredible story, so he decided to consult his doubts with Demaratus, an exiled Spartan.

He commented that the Spartans were preparing for battle, since it was the custom of those warriors to adorn their hair before facing death. Furthermore, Demaratus explained to Xerxes that the Spartans were the bravest soldiers in all of Greece and that they would probably be there to block the way.

Xerxes I refused to believe the Spartan's claims; however, he sent an ambassador to negotiate with Leonidas. He offered the Greek king peace and fertile lands if he submitted to Xerxes, but Leonidas flatly refused.

For this reason, Xerxes decided to prolong the advance, in order to give his enemy the opportunity to surrender due to the abysmal difference in soldiers. However, the Persian king was left with no choice but to continue with the attack, as the Spartans did not yield.

First clashes

After the fifth day of having reached Thermopylae, Xerxes decided to advance and attack the Greeks.

The Achaemenid Empire's tactic was to send out a great wave of soldiers to overwhelm their opponents; if this didn't work, Xerxes would send out the so-called immortals, who were the most important elite warriors in the Asian Empire.

The immortal warrior tactic was famous for its effectiveness in the Far East. However, this was not as efficient against Greek warriors, who wielded other types of weapons and developed a completely different military technique.

According to the sources of Ctesias and Herodotus, the first wave of the Persian army was destroyed by the Spartans, who only lost two or three of their men during this attack. Likewise, these historians affirmed that Xerxes decided to send the immortals that day, who failed to open a breach in the lines of the Greeks.

Second clashes

The following day the Persian king decided to send his infantry again to unblock the pass, assuming that the Greeks would be weak from injuries from the previous combat. This did not turn out as Xerxes assumed, as his army made no progress that day, so he had to stop the assault and withdraw his soldiers.

Late in the afternoon, Xerxes received a visit from a traitorous Greek named Ephialtes, who informed him of another pass that surrounded Thermopylae. Ephialtes proposed to the Persian king to be his guide along this mountainous route in exchange for a solid reward.

After receiving this information, Xerxes sent the commander of his troops to surround his allies by the new route. According to the texts of the historian Diodorus, a man named Tirrastíadas escaped from the forces of the Persians and revealed the plan to Leonidas. However, this fragment of the story does not appear in Herodotus's version.

Last matches

When the Persian army managed to surround the Thermopylae pass, they encountered a group of Phocidian soldiers who had been guarding the passage through that area. The Persian commander feared that they were Spartans, but the traitor Ephialtes assured him that they were not.

Later, Leonidas learned that the Phocidians had not been able to control the Persians, so he decided to call a council of war.

Certain Greek authorities defended the idea of ​​retiring; however, Leonidas decided to stay at Thermopylae with his warriors. Many allies left the place: only the Thebans and the Thespians remained.

Some claim that Leonidas decided to stay to fulfill the Oracle's prophecy; others propose that the Spartan king stayed in Thermopylae in order to protect the withdrawal of the Allies and to delay the entry of the Persians.

End of battle

After sending his commander down the other route, Xerxes waited for the immortals to reach the mountain to attack.

According to Herodotus, two brothers of the Persian king died during this confrontation, known as Hyperants and Abrocomes. Leonidas also died in this last confrontation, which caused both sides to fight to keep his body.

However, the Persians managed to kill the Greeks who were guarding the body of Leonidas, so they managed to get hold of the corpse. The Persians used to treat the bodies of brave enemies with great honor, but Xerxes was furious, so he decided to crucify Leonidas' corpse and keep his head.

After forty years, the bones of the Spartan king were returned to their land, where they were buried with all the respective honors. After this massacre, the Persians finally managed to cross Thermopylae.

Consequences

After the defeat of the Spartans, the Greeks managed to defeat the Persian army in a naval battle that took place in Corinth. This warlike confrontation is known as the Battle of Salamis.

Despite this victory, the Persian army had caused serious damage to the Greek polis; even many of these had been burned and razed, as happened in Athens.

After the expulsion of the enemy, the polis had to face a costly and difficult reconstruction task. Furthermore, despite the alliance and the success of the military teamwork, some years later Sparta and Athens met again.

After several decades of fighting, the Greek polis re-established their alliance with the arrival of the Macedonian king Alexander the Great, who had set out to liberate Ionia and Egypt from Persian power.

With the triumph of this renowned king, the Persian Empire became extinct forever, leaving only evidence of its existence in ancient texts.

Importance to Ancient Greece

Although it ended with a resounding defeat, the Battle of Thermopylae became an example of discipline and courage for all Greek polis, since the ability of the defending Greeks was a sign of the importance of training, teamwork and proper use of the land.

This battle is one of the most famous warlike confrontations of antiquity, since the military exploits of the Greeks surprised all the military and historians that made up the polis.

However, the battle of Thermopylae also meant the arrival of terrible consequences for the Greeks, because the city-states had been greatly aggravated.

In the same way, this battle caused a commotion in the ancient Greek world since, if the Spartans had been able to maintain the defense of Thermopylae, it is likely that Xerxes would have withdrawn his invasion due to lack of food and water.

Likewise, the importance of this confrontation does not lie in the final result, but in the patriotic inspiration that it entailed. In fact, this battle was very famous thanks to the free decision that the Greek soldiers made to stay and die to protect their lands.

Some historians explained that this battle was a moral and cultural lesson, since it was possible to glimpse a small group of free warriors battling against a remarkable number of imperial soldiers who were fighting only out of obligation.

In other words, the Spartan soldiers decided where, when and whom to fight, which was in stark contrast to the despotic and monarchical obedience of the Persian warriors, who were not free men but rather individuals forced to fight to satisfy greed. of Xerxes I.

References

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