NORMATIVE ETHICS: MODALITIES, THEORIES - PHILOSOPHY - 2025

The normative ethics is a branch of ethics or moral philosophy that studies and lists the criteria for what is morally right or wrong. In this way, it seeks to establish norms or standards for conduct. Your main challenge is determining how those basic moral standards are arrived at and justified.

An example of understanding exactly what a normative principle is is the golden rule. This is stated: "we must do to others what we would like others to do to us."

Of course, based on the golden rule, everything that threatens others is wrong, because in principle it also threatens ourselves. So it is wrong to lie, victimize, assault, kill, harass others.

For scholars, the golden rule is a clear example of a normative theory that establishes a single principle by which all actions can be judged.

However, there are other normative theories that focus on a set of good character traits or foundational principles.

Modalities

The main point of normative ethics is to determine how basic moral standards are justified.

The answer to this problem has been given from two positions or categories: the deontological and the teleological. Both differ from each other in that teleological theories establish ethical standards based on value considerations. As for deontological theories, no.

In this way, deontological theories use the concept of their inherent correctness when establishing ethical standards. On the other hand, teleological theories maintain that the value or goodness generating actions is the main criterion of their ethical value.

In addition, each of them clearly differs from the other, in other fundamental concepts.

Deontological approach

- It maintains that certain things are done by principle or because they are inherently correct.

-It emphasizes the concepts of obligation, duty; right and wrong.

-Establish formal or relational criteria such as fairness or equality.

Teleological approach

- It maintains that certain classes of actions are correct due to the goodness of their consequences.

-It emphasizes the good, the valuable and the desirable.

-Provides material or substantive criteria such as pleasure or happiness.

Theories

It is the two basic approaches to normative ethics explained above that have given rise to the different theories of normative ethics.

They can be divided into three main variants, theories belonging to:

-Deontology

-The consequentialism

-The ethics of virtues

Deontology

These theories are based on what is considered duty or obligation.

There are four deontological theories:

1-The materialized by Samuel Pufendorf. This German philosopher classified the duties as:

• Duties to God: know his existence and worship him.
• Duties to oneself: for the soul, how to develop talents. And for the body, how not to damage it.
• Duties to others: absolute, such as treating others as equals; and conditionals that imply agreements.

2-Theory of rights. The most influential was that of the British philosopher John Locke. In it it is argued that the laws of nature order that man must not harm the life, health, freedom or possessions of anyone.

3-Kantian ethics. For Immanuel Kant, man has moral duties for himself and for others as Pufendorf puts it. But he maintains that there is a more fundamental principle of duty. A single and obvious principle of reason: the categorical imperative.

A categorical imperative orders an action, regardless of personal wishes. For Kant there are various formulations of the categorical imperative but there is a fundamental one. That is: treating people as an end and never as a means to an end.

4-Theory of William David Ross that emphasizes the duties prima facie. He also argues that man's duties are part of the fundamental nature of the universe.

However, his list of obligations is shorter, because it reflects the truest convictions of man. Among them are: fidelity, reparation, justice, beneficence, gratitude, among others.

Faced with the choice of two conflicting duties, Ross maintains that intuitively one knows which is the real one, and which is the apparent one.

Consequentialism

For consequentialist theories an action is morally correct as long as its consequences are more favorable than unfavorable.

This is why, according to consequentialist principles, the bad and good consequences of an action must be taken into account. Then establish whether total good actions prevail over total bad consequences.

If there are more good consequences, then the action is morally correct. If instead, there are more bad consequences, then the action is morally wrong.

The most important characteristic of consequentialism is that it draws on the consequences of actions that are publicly observable. Hence, they specify which consequences are relevant to the groups of people affected. In accordance with this it is subdivided into three types:

Ethical egoism, which postulates an action as morally correct if the consequences of said action are more favorable than unfavorable. This is applicable only for the agent performing the action.

Ethical altruism, which holds that an action is morally correct if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable. In this case for everyone except the agent.

Utilitarianism, which affirms a morally correct action if its consequences are more favorable than unfavorable for everyone.

The ethics of virtues

It is the one that studies morality considering that it starts from internal features of the person, from their virtues. It is opposed to consequentialism in which for it morality depends on the result of the act. And also to deontology in which morality arises from rules.

Theories of virtue is one of the oldest normative traditions in Western philosophy. It originates from Greece. It is there where Plato establishes four cardinal virtues which are: wisdom, courage, temperance and justice.

For him there are also other important virtues such as strength, respect for himself or sincerity.

Later, Aristotle argues that virtues are the good habits that are acquired. And in turn regulate emotions. For example, if you feel fear naturally, you should develop the virtue of courage.

Through the analysis of 11 specific virtues, Aristotle argued that for the most part, these virtues are in the middle between extreme character traits. This means, for example, that if I have too much courage, I become reckless, which is a vice.

It is not an easy task for this philosopher to develop the perfect mean between extreme character traits. Consequently, he argues that the help of reason is needed for that.

These theories are taken in the Middle Ages where the theological virtues are developed: faith, hope and charity. They decrease in the 19th century, to reappear in the 20th.

Precisely in the middle of the 20th century, the theory of virtue was once again defended by some philosophers. And it is Alasdaire MacIntyre who defends the central role of virtues in his theory. Holding that virtues are based on and emerge from social traditions.

References

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