SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY: HISTORY, CLASSICAL AND CONTEMPORARY - CULTURE VOCABULARY - 2025

The sociological theory is the discipline that is responsible for studying various phenomena of the social world and the relationship between them. Their explanations can range from very specific facts to paradigms that allow societies to be fully analyzed and interpreted.

The main function of the different sociological theories is to try to explain human behavior within a specific society. To do so, they are based on the evidence accumulated by various branches of science, such as psychology, anthropology or biology; and by social sciences such as history or economics.

Unlike social theory, which is especially concerned with the critique of social phenomena, sociological theory tries to be completely impartial in its analysis of the facts present in past and present societies.

History

Background

Sociology and sociological theory as we understand them now arose mainly from the time of the Enlightenment. In their origin, they were ways of thinking based on social positivism, and they appeared from the development of the scientific method and the philosophy of knowledge.

However, since ancient times, thinkers have been concerned with social issues and with the influence of culture in people's lives. For example, in the classical texts, Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle wondered what was the best way to organize society.

On the other hand, in the fourteenth century a Muslim thinker named Ibn Khaldun wrote a treatise on social conflict and cohesion. This was one of the first "scientific" texts in the field of sociology and social theory.

Illustration and Industrial Revolution

It was not until the time of the Enlightenment that the first truly scientific treatises on social theory emerged. At first these works were very influenced by the positivist current, which saw history as continuous progress and had an optimistic vision of humanity.

At this time, the most important work was that of Comte, who has been considered the father of sociology. This philosopher saw social theory as the most important science of all, since it was in charge of studying the most complex phenomenon known: human societies.

Later, after the Industrial Revolution, the positivist vision of social theory lost its prominence, and other currents appeared, such as Karl Marx's historical materialism or social Darwinism, based on Charles Darwin's theory of evolution.

Karl Marx

Marx rejected positivism and tried to create a science of society, in such a way that some thinkers like Isaiah Berlin have described him as the true father of modern sociology.

At the center of his theories was the idea that history has been driven by class struggle between those who own the means of production and those who don't.

Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer was the creator of Social Darwinism. Rejecting Marxist theories, Spencer proposed that the fundamental mechanism by which societies advance is the survival of the fittest systems.

Therefore, instead of recommending strong control over society, he proposed a free system that would allow the natural selection of social systems.

Social theory in modernity

From the end of the 19th century, sociology was established as an independent science, creating the first chairs on the subject in different European universities. Also at this time a more empiricist vision was adopted, in such a way that it was tried to equate sociology with the pure sciences through the use of the scientific method.

However, at the beginning of the 20th century an anti-positivist trend emerged that discarded the validity of empiricism.

Today, this anti-positivism has joined new currents such as critical theory and postmodernism, making qualitative research gain importance (that is, that which is concerned with studying in depth each phenomenon without worrying about the scientific method).

In recent times, a large number of new currents have emerged in social theory, each trying to understand human societies from its own paradigm. Some of the most important are feminism, social constructionism or the theory of social exchange.

Classical sociological theory

Classical sociological theory is usually divided into four different streams: functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, and utilitarianism.

Functionalism

Functionalism treats the whole of society as a single element, understanding that each of its components is a fundamental piece for its proper functioning. It is the current that drinks the most from social Darwinism.

The analogy most used to describe the functionalist vision of society is that of a human body. Within it we can find different bodies (which in society would be the rules and institutions); each of them is necessary for the proper functioning of the body.

Conflict theory

The theory of conflict posited that the main force in the evolution of societies is the struggle of different segments of society for scarce resources, such as land or food.

Karl Marx was one of the most important thinkers of conflict theory. He postulated that society is structured in a certain way because a few control all resources, and because of this, others have to sell their work for money.

Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism is a current of sociological theory that focuses on social processes and their formation through the daily interaction of people. According to interactionists, society is nothing more than the reality shared by people when they interact with each other.

One of the topics that most interested the interactionists was the use of symbols: for example, non-verbal language, expressions, clothing or customs typical of a society.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism, also known as exchange theory or rational choice theory, is a current of sociological theory that assumes that in every interaction, each person always seeks their maximum benefit.

In this way, utilitarians consider that today's society would have evolved due to the fact that it more efficiently met people's needs.

Contemporary Sociological Theories

In the last decades, in the field of sociology, a large number of new trends have appeared that try to explain social phenomena. Some of the most important are the following:

- Critical theory.

- Compromised theory.

- Feminism.

- Field theory.

- Formal theory.

- Neo positivism.

- Theory of social exchange.

References

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2. "Sociological theory" in: Wikipedia. Retrieved on: February 28, 2018 from Wikipedia: en.wikipedia.org.
3. Sociology ”in: Wikipedia. Retrieved on: February 28, 2018 from Wikipedia: en.wikipedia.org.
4. "Sociological theories" in: History Learning Site. Retrieved on: February 28, 2018 from History Learning Site: historylearningsite.co.uk.
5. "History of sociology" in: Wikipedia. Retrieved on: February 28, 2018 from Wikipedia: en.wikipedia.org.