FRENCH REVOLUTION: CAUSES, STAGES, CONSEQUENCES, CHARACTERS - HISTORY - 2025

The French Revolution was a social, ideological, political and military event that took place in France in 1789. This revolution is considered one of the most important moments in history. Thus, it is used as a dividing moment between the Modern Age and the Contemporary Age.

Europe at that time was dominated by absolute monarchy, although already with some influence from the Enlightenment. In those political systems there was a clear social division, with the nobility and the clergy at the top, only after the monarch, and a third state composed of peasants and the growing bourgeoisie at the bottom of the pyramid.

Storming of the Bastille - Source: Bibliothèque nationale de France under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license

It was, precisely, the bourgeoisie who led the revolution. At first, they kept King Louis XVI in his post, although with weakened powers. Later, the monarch was executed and the country became a Republic.

The revolution ended up affecting the entire continent, with the absolutist monarchies trying to avoid contagion to their countries. His ideals, however, ended up reaching the entire planet, including Latin America. The end of that period is marked by the coup d'état of Napoleon, son of the Revolution.

Background

The French Revolution began in 1789, with the outbreak of all the social problems typical of the Old Regime. Until then, French society had been transforming, both in its composition and in its economic relations.

The Old Regime

Historians call the political, social and economic system prior to the Revolution as the Old Regime.

Like most of Europe, France is ruled by an absolute monarchy. In this type of government, it was the king who accumulated all power, without limitations. In most cases, monarchs claimed that their right to rule was of divine origin.

The king was in charge of dictating laws, declaring war or peace, creating taxes or disposing of the goods of the subjects. There was no concept of individual freedom, nor that of conscience or the press.

Society

The society of the Old Regime was based on rigid estates. Thus, only below the king, were the clergy and the nobility. These classes did not have to pay taxes, in addition to other social and economic privileges.

At the base of the pyramid was the so-called third estate, composed, at first, of peasants, artisans, and serfs.

However, in the time before the Revolution another new social class had begun to appear: the bourgeoisie. It included individuals who had achieved a good economic position through their business, trade or industry.

The bourgeoisie was legally within the third estate and, therefore, did not enjoy any rights. It was its components that led the Revolution, seeking to improve their social situation. In fact, the revolutions of the time, not just the French, are known as "bourgeois revolutions".

Economy

The French economy reflected the social classes. The wealth belonged, especially the land, to the nobility and the clergy.

In contrast, the third estate did not have its own possessions and was obliged to pay taxes. The bourgeoisie began to change this situation, since they opened businesses and began to trade.

Causes

In general terms, there were several factors that influenced the Revolution, both ideological and social, economic and political.

Illustration

The European 18th century was marked by the appearance of the Enlightenment. The authors of this trend were philosophers, political scientists, scientists and economists, and their work, especially from 1750 on, changed the ideological paradigm of the continent and the world.

His main contribution was to discuss the existence of a Divine Right of kings. The enlightened placed reason above any faith and proclaimed aspects such as the equality of all human beings.

Social imbalances

The social evolution of France in the 18th century caused imbalances to occur in rigid structures that were unable to adapt to new times.

One of the most important factors, as has been commented, was the emergence of the bourgeoisie. Their economic power did not correspond to the role they could play in the society of the Old Regime. The bourgeois began to question the power of the nobility and the king, as well as the privileges they maintained.

In addition, the peasantry, who lived subject to the exploitation of the lords, was reaching an unbearable point, increasingly exploited and with worse living conditions.

In short, it was an absolutist monarchy with no flexibility to adapt. And when, by force, she tried to carry out some reforms, she found an aristocracy clinging to their feudal privileges that prevented any small reform.

Economic crisis

The poor harvests that occurred in the 1780s, as well as the agricultural crisis, almost brought all economic sectors to a standstill.

The situation was especially serious in the countryside and in the city. In the years before the Revolution, there were riots and popular uprisings caused by poverty and hunger.

Trigger factor

The reason that triggered the French Revolution was the political crisis that arose after Louis XVI's attempt to improve the dire financial situation the kingdom was going through.

The French economy or, what was the same, the monarchy, was the main problem during the years before the Revolution. The expenses produced by his confrontations with Great Britain, as well as the waste of the court of Versailles, caused that it was essential to take urgent measures.

The head of finance, Jacques Necker, proposed some measures to balance the budget. The rejection of the clergy and nobles led to his dismissal.

Charles Alexandre de Calonne, new finance minister, tried to launch a tax reform. In practice, this meant that the clergy and nobility lost their privileges in this area. Like Necker, Calonne was also removed from office.

The new minister, Lomenie de Brienne, was totally against the reforms. However, seeing that finances were going to collapse, he had to resort to the Calonne project.

Nobles and clergy intervened again. On this occasion, they denied the legitimacy of the monarch to eliminate his privileges and requested the convocation of the States General.

Stages

Two major stages are usually distinguished during the Revolution: the monarchical and the republican. These, in turn, are divided according to the most important events.

States General of 1789

The Estates General were a kind of legislative body in which the three states were represented: nobility, clergy, and third estate. Although it had been of some importance during the 14th and 15th centuries, it had not been reunited since 1614.

1200 deputies participated in this assembly. Of these, 300 belonged to the clergy, another 300 to the nobility and the rest, 600, to the Third Estate.

Louis XVI had no choice but to call a meeting of the States General. The chosen date was early May 1789. In addition, Loménie de Brienne submitted her resignation.

To replace him, the king again called Necker, who had achieved a certain popularity among the population. The Third Estate took the initiative and presented some favorable proposals to the people. These were dismissed by the king and the nobility.

One of the most important was the request that the vote be by head, since, being a majority, the people would benefit. Instead, the clergy and nobility agreed to keep the vote by order, which favored them. Given this, the Third Estate decided to disobey the king and met on their own.

National Assembly (1789)

This new organism created by the Third Estate received the name of National Assembly. It was founded on June 17, 1789, and the organizers, despite inviting members of the clergy and aristocracy, made clear their intentions to go ahead even without them.

The king tried to avoid the meetings by closing the rooms where they were meeting. For this reason, the participants moved to a nearby building, where the nobility practiced the game of ball.

In that new location, the assembly members proceeded to the so-called “Ball Game Oath”. In that statement, made on June 20, they promised not to separate until France had a new constitution.

The lower clergy and 47 nobles joined the Assembly. The monarchy responded by gathering large contingents of military troops. Meanwhile, the Assembly began to receive multiple support from Paris itself and other French cities. On July 9, the National Constituent Assembly was proclaimed.

Constituent Assembly (1789 - 1791)

Louis XVI and his closest circle (some nobles and his brother Count D'Artois) decided to remove Necker as minister. The people saw this as a kind of royal coup and responded by rebelling in the streets.

On July 14, one of the most symbolic events of the entire Revolution took place. The people, fearing that the king's troops would arrest the assembly members, stormed and took the Bastille fortress, one of the symbols of the monarchy.

The Revolution spread throughout the country. New city councils were created that only recognized the Constituent Assembly. Violence appeared in much of France, especially directed against the landed nobility. This agrarian rebellion is known as the Great Fear.

The king, for his part, had to retreat with his troops, while Lafayette took command of the National Guard and Jean-Silvain Bailly was appointed mayor of Paris.

The monarch returned to the capital on July 27 and accepted the tricolor cockade, symbol of the revolution. Some nobles, on the other hand, fled the country and began to promote military actions in their host countries. They were called "emigres."

Declaration of the Rights of Man

The Assembly began its legislative work on the night of August 4. Among the new laws were the abolition of personal easements (feudalism), the abolition of tithes and manorial justice, as well as the establishment of equality in the payment of taxes and access to public office.

On August 26, the Assembly promulgated the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Louis XVI tried to flee abroad but was discovered in Varennes and later arrested and locked up in the Tuileries.

The Legislative Assembly (1791 - 1792)

The 1791 Constitution, promulgated by the Assembly, declared France a constitutional monarchy. The king remained in his position, but his powers had been reduced and he only maintained the possibility of veto and the power to choose the ministers.

The Assembly was inaugurated on October 1, 1791. The distribution of its components gave rise to the concepts of political left and right, depending on where the most progressive and the most conservative sat.

Likewise, it was the germ of the birth of political parties. The deputies met in the clubs, the best known being that of the Jacobins, led by Maximilian de Robespierre. Still further to the left were the rope makers, who advocated universal male suffrage and the establishment of a republic. Their leaders were Marat and Danton.

Among the more moderate stood out the Girondists, supporters of census suffrage and the constitutional monarchy. Between both extremes were a large number of parliamentarians, called the Llano.

The Assembly took the lead in the war against the absolutist countries which, fearful of contagion, soon began to attack the new France. Meanwhile, the monarch was still imprisoned in Las Tuileries. From there, he conspired against the revolutionaries.

First Republic

The people stormed the Palace of the Tuileries on August 10, 1792. That same day, the Assembly suspended the functions of the monarch, de facto overthrowing him. The revolutionary project then concentrated on calling elections to elect a new parliament, which they called the Convention.

France, at that time, was threatened from several fronts. In the interior, the attempts of counterrevolution and, in the exterior, by the European absolutist monarchies.

Given this, the insurrectionary Commune replaced the Assembly as the highest authority of the State. That held until September 20, when the Convention was formed. France became a republic and established a new calendar, in which 1792 became the year I.

The Convention (1792-1795)

The powers in the new Republic were distributed between the Convention, which was assumed by the legislature, and the National Salvation Committee, responsible for the executive power.

The new authorities decreed universal suffrage and sentenced Louis XVI to death. The execution took place in January 1793.

This period led to the Age of Terror. Robespierre, the Jacobin leader, assumed power and ordered the arrest and execution of thousands of alleged opponents of the Revolution. Among the victims were former revolutionaries such as Marat or Danton, who had been against Robespierre.

Finally, the guillotine also hit Robespierre himself, executed by his enemies at the Convention. The government of terror was made up of three committees: that of public salvation, that of general security, and the revolutionary court.

The Directory (1795 - 1799)

In year III (1795) the Convention promulgated a new Constitution. In it, the Directory, a moderate republican government, was created. This government was formed by the executive branch, in charge of the 5-member Board of Directors, and by the legislative branch, exercised by two different councils.

During that stage, the main problem for France came from abroad. The absolutist powers continued to try to end the republic, although without success.

In these conflicts, a name began to become very popular in the country: Napoleon Bonaparte. This Corsican soldier took advantage of his military successes to, on Brumaire 18 (November 19, 1788), carry out a coup and establish the Consulate as the new governing body.

The Consulate (1799-1804)

On December 25, 1799, the Consulate approved a new Constitution. This established an authoritarian regime, with all power in the hands of Napoleon. In that Magna Carta there was no mention of the fundamental rights of citizens.

This date is considered by many historians as the end of the Revolution and the beginning of a new stage, in which Napoleon would end up proclaiming himself Emperor (May 18, 1804) and conquering a large part of Europe.

Consequences

Few historical events have had as many consequences as the French Revolution. This represented a before and after in the future of Europe, at the end of the Old Regime and propagating the ideas of the Enlightenment.

New constitution

The constitution promulgated by the National Assembly marked the end of the absolute monarchy and feudal structures. In the Magna Carta the principles of the constitutional monarchy appeared, with power residing in the people and not in the king by the grace of God.

Furthermore, the constitution was one of the pillars for the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The revolutionary ideals, liberty, equality, and fraternity, became those of the most advanced democracies.

In broad terms, the Declaration of Human Rights affirms the freedom of thought of each individual, as well as the equality of all citizens before the law and the State.

Separation between Church and State

One of the consequences of the Revolution was the separation between the Church and the State. Its laws established the primacy of civilians over religious, eliminating privileges and powers from the ecclesiastical authorities.

To this was added the seizure of the assets accumulated by the institution, which came to belong to the State.

Power in the hands of the bourgeoisie

An emerging social class managed to displace the aristocracy from positions of power: the bourgeoisie.

Although legally belonging to the Third Estate, the bourgeoisie had acquired considerable economic power thanks to their business and trade. In addition, unlike the peasants, they had accessed education, receiving the influence of the Enlightenment.

New metric system

The revolutionaries came with the intention of changing the whole of society, including some, theoretically, minor aspects. The calendar did not come to fruition, but some reforms in the scientific fields that were applied to trade did.

In 1799, the French introduced the meter and kilogram standards, later spreading throughout Europe.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Although, historiographically, the Revolution ends with the arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte, the figure of the Emperor would not be understood without revolutionary ideals.

Bonaparte implanted an Empire based on his person, but, paradoxically, he tried to bring democratic and egalitarian ideals to the rest of the continent through war.

His conquests had a great impact, spreading the ideas of nationalism, the Enlightenment and democracy throughout Europe.

Main characters

The social sides that faced each other in the French Revolution were, on the one hand, the monarchy, the clergy and the nobility, and on the other, the bourgeoisie and the common people. In all these sectors appeared fundamental characters for the development of events.

Louis XVI

Louis XVI assumed the throne of France in 1774, at the age of 20. Although he received a more careful education than that of his predecessors, he did not know how to face the political, social and economic situation he encountered in the country. For this reason, historians affirm that he left the management of the State in the hands of third parties, while he was dedicated to the hunts.

The monarch married Marie Antoinette in 1770, who was more hated by the people than her own husband. This was forced to summon the General States before the pressure of the nobility and the clergy, who were not willing to start paying taxes. However, the Third Estate took advantage of the situation to create its own Assembly.

The king was arrested, despite the fact that, at first, the revolutionaries opted for the revolutionary monarchy. His attempts to conspire against the new France led to him being tried and executed on January 21, 1793.

Marie Antoinette

The unpopularity of Queen Marie Antoinette was caused by her fondness for luxury, gambling, and other worldly pleasures. She was blamed for having spent a good part of the public purse.

Like her husband, the queen was imprisoned and sentenced to death for high treason, by the Revolutionary Court, on October 16, 1793.

Charles-Philippe, Count d'Artois

The Count d'Artois was the younger brother of Louis XVI and, as such, fought against the revolution and the fall of the crown.

Before the storming of the Bastille, the Count went into exile to Great Britain. With the defeat of Napoleon, he returned to the country and was named king with the name of Carlos X. He was the last Bourbon to reign in France.

Maximilien de Robespierre

Robespierre, nicknamed "the incorruptible," had studied law and practiced as a lawyer. In the Estates General of 1789 he was one of the deputies belonging to the Third Estate. He was one of the founders of the Jacobin club.

The politician, a faithful follower of Rousseau, was very radical in his approaches. By becoming one of the highest authorities of the Republic, Robespierre established the so-called "government of horror." Thousands of executions followed, both of counterrevolutionaries and simple opponents of the government.

Ultimately, he met the same fate as many of his enemies: he was executed by moderate Girondists in 1794.

George Jacques Danton

Danton was, like Robespierre, a lawyer. In 1789, he exercised this profession as a member of the King's Council.

The following year, Danton founded the Club de los Cordeliers (Rope Makers), along with Desmoulins, among others. His ideas were similar to those of the Jacobins, although more radical.

With the triumphant Revolution, Danton was part of the Governing Council. He soon collided with Robespierre, opposing the "government of terror" established by him. This earned him the accusation of enemy of the Republic and his subsequent execution on April 5, 1794.

Jean paul marat

As a journalist, his articles attacking the powerful had earned him a month in prison in 1789, before the Revolution. Ideologically, he was totally against the monarchy and clashed with moderate revolutionaries.

Unlike many other protagonists of the Revolution, Marat did not die guillotined. In his case, he was stabbed by a Girondin aristocrat, Charlotte Corday.

References

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