PRE-HISPANIC PEOPLES: MESOAMERICAN, ARIDOAMERICAN, SOUTH AMERICAN - HISTORY - 2024

The pre-Hispanic peoples are a group of cultures that inhabited the continent before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in America. Of these peoples, two great civilizations that developed in South America (Incas) and in Central and North America (Mesoamerican) stand out.

For their part, the Mesoamerican pre-Hispanic peoples were made up of the Olmec, Zapotec, Mayan, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Mixtec and Aztec or Mexica cultures. These towns arose and developed between the year 2300 a. C. and 1400 d. C. from the Preclassic period.

Theories suggest that the Clovis culture, which originated about 13,000 to 14,000 years ago, was the ancestor of the civilizations that populated Mesoamerica, but there is no agreement on the origin and antiquity of these first men who populated America.

The so-called "clovis consensus" states that the first humans to reach the continent did so from Asia (Siberia) through the Bering Strait.

The Clovis were basically hunter-gatherer (Paleo-Indian) peoples who inhabited the northern United States. They hunted mammoths on the plains of New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Colorado.

Anthropological studies indicate that the Viking expeditions that came to the American continent from Greenland -at least 500 years before Columbus- did not have as much social influence in the process of formation of the American peoples.

What is certain is that 11,000 years ago the entire continent, from Alaska to Chile, was populated.

Mesoamerican pre-Hispanic peoples

Mesoamerica is a cultural region that includes a large part of the Mexican territory, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, western Honduras, Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

Olmec

Olmec head

The Olmec culture developed during the Middle Preclassic period, between 1200 and 400 BC. C. It is considered the mother civilization of the Mesoamerican peoples. Olmec culture is believed to be directly descended from the North American Clovis.

It inhabited the lowlands of the central-southern region of Mexico; that is, the southeast of Veracruz and the western zone of the state of Tabasco.

The Olmecs were great builders who built the ceremonial centers of San Lorenzo, Tres Zapotes and La Venta, although they also carried out religious ceremonies in La Mojara and Laguna de los Cerros.

Architecture and traditions

One of the main distinguishing features of their artistic expressions are their monumental basalt heads, three and four meters high and several tons in weight. Possibly, the Olmec heads represent the consecration of the priestly military caste, which led the tribes and developed thanks to agricultural production.

This culture grew up in the vicinity of mighty rivers. The adobe structures that they built along with the temples on mounds, are the forerunners of the pyramids. Their architecture, traditions and diet suggest that they had a developed degree of social organization.

However, they did not establish large cities; on the contrary, they were rather dispersed and had a low population density.

On the other hand, apparently if they had an advanced military-religious leadership that enjoyed privileges, this according to their way of feeding themselves with game animals and fruits of the sea, and the monopoly of agricultural production and the trade of luxury goods.

The privileged caste had the function of organizing the members of the tribes for the execution of public works and agricultural activities, hunting and fishing.

Economy and society

The Olmecs based their economy on agriculture, their main agricultural items being corn, beans, and cacao. They were a polytheistic people; that is, they believed in various gods. These were the sun, the stars, the moon, and natural phenomena. They also worshiped the jaguar, an animal that they abundantly represent in various pieces of art.

The Olmec civilization was the first Mesoamerican culture to develop a hieroglyphic writing system. Traces of this writing have been discovered in archaeological sites dating from 650 BC. C. and from 900 a. These hieroglyphs exceed the antiquity of the Zapotec writing, another of the oldest in the Western Hemisphere.

The Olmecs would also have been the creators of the ball game, which became very popular among all Mesoamerican peoples. Its purpose was recreational and ceremonial.

The Olmec model of social structure would have been the prototype of social organization of the other Mesoamerican peoples. Its development and expansion deepened during the Classic period with the Mayans, reaching the degree of civilization.

Zapotecs

Zapotec pyramids, Monte Albán.

After the Olmecs, the Zapotec culture emerged, which was located in the mountainous territory of the current state of Oaxaca (Central Valley). The Zapotecs lived during the Classic and Late Postclassic periods, between 500 BC. C. and the year 1521, after the arrival of the Spanish.

The Zapotecs developed two calendars and a phonetic logo writing system, which used a separate glyph that served to represent each syllable of the indigenous language. It was one of the first Mesoamerican writing systems.

The calendars of the Zapotec culture were the Yza, of 365 days and 18 months of 20 days each, and it was used for harvests. The other was the Piye calendar, of 260 days spread over 13 months. It was used to choose the name of the newborns and it was divided into months of 20 days.

Society

The Zapotecs were a sedentary people who reached advanced levels as a civilization. They lived in large cities and villages, and their houses were built with resistant materials such as stone and mortar.

The main ceremonial center of the Zapotecs is in Monte Albán and San José Mogote. Its agricultural development was due to the construction of aqueducts and cisterns to transport rainwater. They were a people with great astronomical and mathematical knowledge, and they developed an efficient tributary system that was broader than that of the Olmecs.

It is believed that this culture may have been related to the founding of the city of Teotihuacán during the Classic period.

Mayas

Pyramids of the Riviera Maya

The Mayan civilization developed in the southeastern part of Mexico, in the states of Yucatán, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco and the eastern part of Chiapas. It also grew in the interior of the Peten jungle in Guatemala and in the border areas of Honduras and Belize.

The Mayans lived in an ecological and geographical environment, which has lent itself to much mystical and esoteric speculation.

The oldest Mayan villages (around 5000 years BC) were located in the vicinity of the Usumacinta and Belize rivers.

It is believed that the first inhabitants of this culture were families of the Olmec tribes that migrated to this Central American region. Other studies establish that the Mayan culture originated in the Classic period (from 300 BC to 900 AD).

Anthropological theories indicate that, as these peoples developed and their population increased, they began to move into the jungle. Subsistence in such an environment forced them to perfect their techniques for cultivating, obtaining and storing water.

Society and architecture

They had a very rigid social organization divided into three basic social classes. At the top of the pyramid were the Mayan chief and his family, the Mayan state officials, and the wealthy merchants. The civil service of the Mayan State and specialized workers (artisans, architects, etc.) followed.

At the base of the social pyramid were the workers, peasants and slaves (prisoners of war).

They built aqueducts and other hydraulic works that made possible the improvement of the cultivation techniques of corn (their main food), cocoa and squash.

They achieved an extraordinary architectural development that is seen in the truncated pyramids of Tikal: structures that rise 57 meters high in highly planned and equally complex cities.

It is known that they organized large contingents of men to undertake their monumental works. They also perfected the trade of raw materials from the highlands that did not exist in the jungle. Thus the Mayan State and its system of social hierarchy grew and consolidated.

The Mayan cities came to have a population density similar to that of any European city (250 people per square mile), and they reached a very high degree of civilization.

Contributions

The Mayans invented a hieroglyphic writing system and obtained very complex mathematical knowledge. This culture invented the zero and was capable of extraordinary astronomical observations.

Like the Olmecs and Zapotecs, they also had a calendar, only more exact than the Gregorian, which is used today.

As with other pre-Columbian cultures, the Maya had an abrupt collapse that has lent itself to all sorts of speculative theories. It is probable that the degree of development reached has exceeded its carrying capacity in the middle of the jungle.

Disappearance

The construction of its monumental pyramids, which were periodically enlarged, required the progressive deforestation of the jungle. Due to the intensive use of natural resources (such as water) they could have progressively dried up the water tributaries, leaving the cities without the vital liquid.

The tensions between the same towns originated civil wars, the abandonment of cities and the destruction of the ceremonial centers. From the emergence and disappearance of these civilizations, pre-Columbian mythology grew around the beginning and culmination of the solar ages.

Teotihuacanos

Teotihuacan

There is very little literature and knowledge available about the Teotihuacán culture, founders of the city of Teotihuacán, located northeast of Mexico City. Recent linguistic studies indicate that it could have been built by the Totonacs.

Its origins date back to 1000 years before the Christian era. The Classic period of Mesoamerican cultures is defined by the apogee of this civilization together with the Mayans. The Mexica called it the "city of the gods" and it reached its maximum development in the 2nd and 6th centuries AD.

Society and architecture

During that period, the city's population reached between 150,000 and 200,000 inhabitants, covering an area of ​​21 square km.

In this pre-Hispanic metropolis the colossal pyramids of the Sun stand out, with 65.5 m; and the Moon, 45 m high. Specialized artisan workshops that served the ruling elite were also located.

Teotihuacán was not only a splendid city for the time - it still is - but a sample of the immense Mesoamerican power. The city was strategically located on an obligatory commercial road between the north and the south of Mexico. This allowed him to spread his influence throughout Mesoamerica.

This city also collapsed and was probably abandoned around the middle of the 6th century, in the same period as Monte Albán. Perhaps both cities were linked commercially and politically. The reasons for the abandonment could have been the same as those of the Mayans: the decrease in water sources and indiscriminate logging.

Mixtecs

Mixtec codex.

The Mixtecs were a Mesoamerican people who inhabited a wide region comprised by the Sierra Madre to the south in Oaxaca, and part of the states of Puebla and Guerrero. They developed approximately in a period between 1500 a. C. and 1523 d. C.

Most of this territory is mountainous. It comprises three ecological zones: the Upper Mixtec, where the main towns of this culture developed (Tilantongo); the Mixtec low or ñuiñe, which means "hot land"; and the Mixteca of the coast.

Customs and architecture

Its main cities were Teozacoacoalco, Coixtlahuaca, Tilantongo and Yanhuitlan, whose greatest splendor was in the period that goes from 692 AD. C. until 1519 d. C.

Apart from the historical depth that distinguishes it, the Mixtec culture is the creator of several of the most relevant pre-Hispanic codices that are known. It was a very complex society like its Zapotec neighbors, made up of extraordinary artisans.

They were one of the best artisans in Mesoamerica, whose creations were appreciated throughout the pre-Hispanic world. His creativity can be seen in all kinds of polychrome ceramics, bone and wood engravings, jade and shell ornaments, goldsmith articles, among others.

In tomb 7 of Monte Albán there is a good example of the quality of its gold work; It is the offering offered to the Mixtec lord.

Society and economy

During the pre-Hispanic period, Mixtec society was divided into independent manors, linked through a complicated network of political and economic relationships, which also included marital alliances.

There were two social classes: the upper or ruling class, made up of priests, chieftains and warriors; and a lower class, made up of peasants and slaves.

Its economy revolved around agriculture, which was the fundamental basis of the Mexica culture. Its most important crops were corn, chili, squash and cochineal, an insect that grows on the cactus that was used to make inks.

His religion was of the animistic type; that is, they believed that when the person died, their soul survived. They also worshiped various gods, such as Dzaui (god of water) and Zaguii (god of rain). Between the years 1522 and 1524 the Spanish conquered the Mixtec region.

Aztecs (Mexica)

Aztec pyramid

The Aztecs or Mexica represent the most important culture of the Mesoamerican Postclassic period. It was the culture that ended up overwhelmed after the Spanish Conquest. It obtained a dizzying rise in a relatively short period of barely two centuries among the Mesoamerican peoples.

His influence spread throughout the territories of the southern and central regions of Mexico. It originated with the miratory movements of the Chichimeca tribes, who moved towards the central highlands between the 12th and 14th centuries. They could probably be Nahua-speaking warrior populations fleeing from the north.

According to Aztec mythology, its origin is found in the mythical Aztlán or place of whiteness. At the time of settling around Lake Texcoco, the region was governed by the "lordship of Atzcapotzalco."

The abundance of natural and aquatic resources made the area highly contested among peoples who practiced agriculture. The Mexica had to pay a tribute to the ruling tribes in order to settle in the lacustrine area of ​​the lake, approximately in the year 1325.

Economy

The unfavorable conditions in which the Mexica had to develop forced them to change their cultivation techniques. This is how the chinampas originated, some islets made up of earth and organic materials reclaimed from the lake. These floating gardens had already been previously used by the Toltecs.

This cultivation method was mixed with irrigation canals and with the development of dikes. In this way, the Mexica reached an insurmountable agricultural development and a vertiginous increase in their population, which challenged the hegemony of Atzcapotzalco.

Mexico City Tenochtitlán had a population of 200,000 inhabitants, and adding to the surrounding villages the population was 700,000. The power of the Mexica increased through family and military ties, highlighting the Triple Alliance made up of the towns of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopa.

The rule of the Triple Alliance was symbolized in the "Aztec version of the promised land." It is represented in the nahual legend of the eagle standing on top of a cactus eating a snake.

Society

The Mexica were a tributary society that dominated some 400 neighboring towns by paying tribute. These towns were divided into 38 provinces.

They had a social stratification of classes, headed by the tlatoani (ruler). Then followed the tax collectors (tecuhtli) and the hereditary nobility (pillis).

The communal lands (calpullis) were awarded to the farming families for their exploitation and corresponding payment of tribute. However, nobles (pillalli) and rulers also owned private lands.

These lands were worked by mayeques in a production regime similar to that of feudal relations. At the base of the social pyramid were servants and slaves who served the nobility.

The legitimation of the power achieved by the Mexica in this type of society based on tax relations was made clear in the 7 extensions that were made of the Templo Mayor: a colossal structure 42 meters high by 80 wide.

This culture became extinct with the arrival of the Spanish conquerors. Hernán Cortés was able to defeat the Mexica with just 550 soldiers, taking advantage of the support offered by the indigenous peoples dominated by the Aztecs (Tlaxcalans and Totonacs).

After two years of conquest and civil war, on August 13, 1521, the fall of Mexico-Tenochtitlan took place.

Toltecs

Toltec figures.

The Toltec culture was established in the current states of Zacatecas and Hidalgo and in nearby areas of Jalisco, during the Classic and Postclassic periods (900 AD to 1100 AD). The center of power was located in the archaeological zone of Tula. It had about 40,000 inhabitants in its heyday.

Traditions

They also had a pantheistic religion, based on the worship of nature: earth, sky and water. Its main god was Quetzalcóatl or god of good, a white and blond priest endowed with great intelligence.

Other of their gods were Tonatiuh (god of the Sun), Tezcatlipoca (god of night and darkness) and Tláloc or god of rain.

Economy and society

The Toltecs were farmers and used the canal and dam systems, because this is a region with a semi-arid climate with little rainfall. Its main agricultural and food items were corn and amaranth.

Likewise, the Toltecs were a warrior people with a form of government largely based on military hierarchies. The society was made up of warriors, nobles and priests, while artisans and farmers were located in a lower social class.

The Toltec culture stood out for its refined art and architecture influenced by Teotihuacán and the Olmec culture. They practiced metal casting and made exquisite stone carvings. Likewise, they worked distillation and had astronomical knowledge.

Towards the year 1168 the decline of the Toltec culture began mainly due to internal political conflicts. Other factors were the invasions of nomadic peoples, among them the Chichimecas and climatic changes. Prolonged droughts caused food shortages.

Preshispanic peoples of Aridoamerica

Aridoamerica region

The towns of Aridoamérica are more than 20: Acaxee, Caxcán, Cochimí, Cucapá (Cocopah), Guachichil, Guachimontones, Guamare, Guaicura, Guarijio, Huichol, Kiliwa, Kumiai (Kumeyaay), Pueblo Mayo, Cultura Mogollón, Mongui, Opata, Ojocam, Paipai or Pai Pai, Pame, Pericú, Pima Bajo, Seri people, Tarahumara, Tecuexe, Tepecanos, Tepehuán, Yaqui, Zacateco people.

The most prominent are:

Chichimecas

The Chichimecas, an umbrella term for various Nahua tribes, were hunter-gatherers in the grasslands of Aridoamerica.

Originally from Aridoamerica, the Chichimecas did not develop a culture worthy of admiration due to their nomadism and their constant confrontations with other tribes (especially Mesoamerican).

Zacatecos

The Zacatecos were part of the Chichimeca nation, and as such, they were savage looting Indians.

This tribe had many confrontations with the Spanish, since the inhabitants of the towns that the Zacatecos invaded were in some cases allies of the powerful European empire.

The Mayo town

The Mayos are a tribe that has its own language, as well as its customs and traditions. They live in the areas of Sonora and Sinaloa and call themselves “Yoremes” (those they respect).

The Mayo people is a confederation of indigenous peoples, who once formed an alliance to defend themselves from other tribes and from the unstoppable advance of the Spanish empire.

Tarahumara

The Rrámuri or Tarahumaras are an indigenous people of northwestern Mexico who are famous for their ability to run long distances.

The term rarámuri refers specifically to men, women are called mukí (individually) and omugí or igómale (collectively).

Caxcán town

Unlike the vast majority of the Aridoamerican tribes, the Cazcanes were a sedentary people (although semi-nomadic to be more precise).

These worshipers of the sun (God called Theotl), were a very advanced people compared to the rest of the northern Mexican tribes.

Huichol

The Huichol or Wixáritari are Native Americans, living in the range of the Sierra Madre Occidental in the Mexican states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Durango.

They are known as the Huichol, yet they refer to themselves as Wixáritari ("the people") in their native Huichol language.

And here

The Yaqui or Yoeme are Native Americans who inhabit the Yaqui River Valley in the Mexican state of Sonora and in the southwestern United States.

They also have small settlements in Chihuahua, Durango, and Sinaloa. The Pascua Yaqui Tribe is based in Tucson, Arizona. They also live in other places in the United States, especially California and Nevada.

Zacateco town

The Zacatecos are an indigenous group, one of the peoples called Chichimecas by the Aztecs. They lived in most of what is now the state of Zacatecas and the northeast part of Durango.

They currently have many direct descendants, but most of their culture and traditions have disappeared over time.

Pre-Hispanic peoples of South America

Chavín culture

Main article: Chavín culture.

Tiahuanaco culture

Main article: Tihuanaco culture.

Moche or Mochica culture

Main article: Moche culture.

The Incas

The Incas were a South American civilization made up of Quechua people, also known as Amerindians. In 1400 AD they were a small highland tribe, a hundred years later, in the early 16th century, they rose up to conquer and control the great Inca Empire.

Its capital was located in Cusco, Peru, and stretched from what is now Ecuador in the north, Chile in the south, Bolivia in the east, and bounded by the Pacific Ocean in the west.

Muiscas

Main article: Muisca culture.

References

1. Mesoamerica cradle of different pre-Hispanic cultures. Consulted of ntrzacatecas.com
2. The pre-Hispanic peoples in Mesoamerica. Consulted of marxist.com
3. Calendar and writing in Monte Albán, Oaxaca. Consulted of mexicodesconocido.com.mx
4. Quetzalcoatl. Consulted of mitosyleyendascr.com
5. Mesoamerica. Consulted of reydekish.com
6. Mesoamerica. Consulted of portalacademico.cch.unam.mx
7. History of Culture and Art. Consulted of books.google.co.ve