BOURBON REFORMS: CAUSES, REFORMS AND CONSEQUENCES - HISTORY - 2025

The Bourbon Reforms were a series of measures implemented during the 18th century in Spain and its American territories. The first regulations began to be promulgated at the beginning of that century, when the Austrians were replaced by the Bourbons at the head of the Spanish throne.

Although some influence can be seen in the first kings of this dynasty, it was from the reign of Carlos III that the illustration became the basis of the reforms. This monarch exercised the so-called enlightened despotism, an absolutist system of government but supposedly aimed at modernizing and improving the quality of life of the people.

Portrait of King Carlos III of Spain by Anton Raphael Mengs - Source: Prado Museum, faithful photographic reproduction of a two-dimensional work of art in the public domain.

The main cause of these reforms was the growing weakness of the Spanish Empire, both in Europe and in its colonies. Thus, the changes made tried to rebuild control over their domains. To do this, centralizing regulations were approved in the peninsula, the colonial administrative system was changed and an attempt was made to get more economic benefit from America.

The outcome of the reforms was uneven. In some areas, such as culture, new educational bodies and centers were created. In others, especially politically, the measures provoked a revival of Spanish imperialism. This has caused many experts to speak of a second conquest of America.

Causes

The death of King Carlos II of Spain, of the Habsburg dynasty, occurred without a direct heir. The Duke of Anjou, a Frenchman of the Bourbon House, was the one who occupied the throne in December 1700 under the name of Philip V.

This circumstance triggered a war in Europe. Thus, Austria, which did not recognize the legitimacy of the new monarch, faced Spain. France supported the Spanish, while England, Holland, Portugal, Prussia and the provinces of Aragon and Catalonia positioned themselves with the Austrians.

The so-called War of Succession, ended in 1713 with the signing of the Peace of Utrech. The agreement recognized Felipe V as king, but forced Spain to abandon its possessions in Europe and allow the English to trade in America.

All this demonstrated the decline of the Spanish Empire, which could not have faced its enemies without the support of France.

Felipe V proposed that the country regain its position of power. To do this, it implemented a series of reforms that allowed it to compete economically, politically and militarily with the rest of the European powers. These measures were the first of the so-called Bourbon Reforms, which affected the American colonies very considerably.

Internal conflicts

Even before the change of the royal house, Spain had suffered several internal conflicts, especially with the Catalans and the Portuguese. This caused many economic problems, in addition to losses of territories that passed into French hands.

The centralizing drive of the Bourbon Reforms, with many measures that sought to unify the peninsula culturally and linguistically, had a lot to do with these conflicts.

Economic problems

The expenses caused by the wars, the mismanagement of finances and corruption caused Spain to go through serious economic problems.

The traditional solution had been to exploit America's wealth, especially its minerals. However, population growth in the colonies during the seventeenth century had meant that they needed more resources. Along with this factor, the colonial administration was very slow and corruption very common.

On the other hand, England and Portugal increased their commercial activity with the New Continent, although they could only do so through smuggling.

The Creole population was beginning to be a problem for the colonial authorities and, together with the rest of the population, they staged uprisings caused by the imposition of new taxes.

All these factors led the Bourbons to liberalize trade to try to increase income, albeit in a very limited way.

Strengthen your power

As noted, Spain's loss of power internationally in 1700 was undeniable. The State was in debt because of the war, trade with America was stagnant and powers such as England and France were increasingly powerful.

The reforms approved by the Bourbons sought to turn this situation around. It was about regaining control over the empire and that the American colonies were once again a source of resources.

To do this, the measures tried to limit the power that the Creole class was acquiring, as well as reduce the influence of the Church and its privileges. Administratively, this meant centralizing the colonias administration.

Likewise, the Spanish monarchs wanted to end corruption, a factor that caused great economic losses.

No less important was the military question. In the presence of other powers on the American coasts, the Spanish approved measures to reinforce the defenses.

Social reforms

In the middle of the 18th century, with the arrival to the throne of Carlos III, the social question began to be addressed. Among the measures approved, at least in Spain, were some that sought to dignify work. The Royal Decree of 1783, specifically, stated that the trades were not disgraceful.

On the other hand, the Spanish monarch approved some control measures for the most marginalized sectors, such as gypsies or homeless people.

Education and scientific institutions benefited from the policies followed by Carlos III. As a follower of enlightened despotism, this king promoted the creation of societies dedicated to science.

Education and culture

Despite the promotion of culture and education brought about by the government of Carlos III, the measures were very limited. All the approved projects were in line with the interests of the monarchy and no system of public instruction was created.

The cause can be found in the words of Jovellanos, who stated that a general education beyond some basic levels was dangerous for the social order.

America

Social measures in America were not much more ambitious. In addition, they represented a setback for some social classes, such as that made up of the Creoles. After the reforms, these Creoles were limited in their options to occupy positions of responsibility.

Political reforms

The political reforms approved by the Bourbons were much deeper than the social ones. In this regard, it is necessary to separate the measures taken in Spain from those approved for the American colonies, although the philosophy behind the changes was very similar.

In Spain

The first result of the political reform in Spain was the legal unification of the different territories that made it up. The central government eliminated the fueros of the Crown of Aragon in retaliation for its support of Austria during the war.

To this end, it approved the so-called Nueva Planta Decrees, which eliminated all the organisms belonging to the kingdom of Aragon, Valencia, Mallorca and Catalonia. In addition, in areas with their own language, Spanish was imposed as the only language of the administration. Finally, all the courts of those kingdoms were unified with that of Castile.

This legal unification was accompanied by administrative centralization. The old viceroys of Aragon were replaced by captains general, figure with military and political powers. Another novelty was the creation of the mayors, delegates of the king who were in charge of collecting taxes and maintaining order.

Political changes in the American territories

The goal of political and administrative reforms in the American colonies was basically to increase centralization. The first step to do this was to reduce the functions of the Council of the Indies by creating two secretariats and a Supreme Board reporting directly to the king.

One of the most important reforms was the change of borders of the viceroyalties. Spain created two new vierrienatos, in Nueva Granada and that of Río de la Plata with the intention of better controlling the colonies.

Between 1765 and 1771, the Spanish crown ordered several general inspections in the colonies. After them, she carried out a series of legal changes to limit the power of the Creoles.

Intendances

Historians affirm that the most important reform was the creation of the municipalities, during the 1960s. These were similar to regional governments whose main functions were to control the collection of taxes, promote economic activities and direct the troops.

These municipalities were badly received by the viceroys, since they limited their functions. This opposition, which was joined by senior officials, caused Spain to fail to centralize the administration to the extent that it desired.

Military reforms

The military threat against the Spanish colonial possessions was increasing. By 1762, the British had successfully attacked Manila and Havana, prompting the Spanish crown to strengthen its military structure.

Furthermore, the Spanish not only had to face foreign armies. In the same colonial territories, uprisings, violent protests and rebellions took place.

The first measure was to increase the number of soldiers, as well as the number of officers. The latter were professionals and born in the peninsula. The former, on the other hand, were mostly Creoles born in America and, years later, played an important role in the wars of independence against Spain.

Economic reforms

It was also the government of Carlos III that tried the most to boost the Spanish economy. In the peninsula, efforts were focused on the most important sector, agriculture, although the property system that favored landowners and the Church was not reformed.

In 1767 the most ambitious project could be launched, when Pablo de Olavide, an enlightened man, organized the colonization of several uninhabited areas of the sierra that were a refuge for bandits.

On the other hand, the Bourbons approved protectionist measures that sought to curb imports and favor the national industry. Likewise, they founded the so-called Royal Factories, state bodies in which some foreign specialists taught modern manufacturing techniques.

Another of the sectors benefited by the Bourbon Reforms was the naval sector. The royal shipyards were expanded and Spain became the third largest naval power on the planet.

Economic institutions

The reorganization of public institutions related to state finances was one of the most important reforms that were carried out. The Court of Accounts and the Royal Treasury were transformed to improve their efficiency and all old officials were replaced.

From that moment on, all taxes had to be controlled by the Royal Treasury, including customs duties. In addition, the government created new consumption taxes and enacted the creation of state-run tobacconists.

Search for more benefits from the colonies

The economic problems that the Spanish treasury was going through led to a good part of the reforms aimed at obtaining more income from the colonies. The legislative changes aimed to increase the production of primary goods, in addition to increasing trade between the colonial territories and with Spain.

In 1717, Spain took steps to have the colonies produce manufactured goods that could compete with the Spanish. In addition, it created a series of state monopolies, such as the one that affected the production and trade of tobacco.

However, the sector that most concerned the Crown was mining. This had been the one that had generated the most income, but in the 18th century, production began to decline. In an attempt to stimulate activity, Spain cut operating taxes in half.

Similarly, the Crown opened several technical schools for the training of future miners, created some credit banks and granted titles of nobility to the owners of the mines that produced the most.

Commercial monopoly

As noted, Spain prevented its colonies from producing their own manufactures so that they would not compete with the Spanish. Other sectors, such as mining, agriculture or livestock had more legal facilities.

However, to commercialize what was produced in these sectors it was also mandatory to respect very strict legislation. For example, any type of trade with England was prohibited. All colonies trade had to be destined for Spain.

These restrictions did not like part of the Creole elite, who made attempts to repeal the corresponding laws.

The approved measures managed to increase mining and agricultural production, partly thanks to very hard work systems for the settlers and, above all, the slaves.

Limited trade liberalization

The Nueva Planta decrees, which legally centralized the peninsula, also meant a great change in trade between the American colonies and Spain.

The Crown promoted the creation of Privileged Commercial Companies, which could trade with certain ports and American products exclusively.

Similarly, between 1767 and 1778 there was a process of liberalization of American trade. The Casa de Contratación, located in Cádiz, lost its monopoly, which meant that trade could be carried out with any Spanish port.

Another significant change was the disappearance of the fleet system. From this reform, the ships had to go one by one, which caused a certain lack of products in the colonies. In addition, the solitude of the ships favored the attacks of the pirates. Given this, Spain had to allow other countries to trade with America, which was interpreted as a sign of weakness.

Religious reforms

The influence of the Catholic Church in Spain and its colonies had always been very great. The Bourbons, with their reforms, tried to diminish that power, since, in some respects, it could be compared to that of the monarchs themselves.

The measures taken were intended to impose royalty, which consisted of the State being stronger than the Church.

Among the legislation promulgated for this purpose, the Concordat negotiated between the Crown and the papacy in 1753 stood out. This agreement gave the kings more authority when it came to authorizing ecclesiastical appointments.

Expulsion of the Jesuits

The Bourbon Reforms considerably reduced the fiscal privileges of religious orders. However, the most relevant event had to do with the Jesuits.

These had collaborated in a very prominent way in the expansion of the ideals of the enlightenment in America. His work had begun in the 30s of the 18th century and had consisted of spreading rationalism, without distinguishing between peninsular, creole or indigenous people.

The education imparted by the Jesuits was a fundamental factor for the emergence of the so-called Creole enlightenment. In practice, this contributed to the growth of disputes between Creoles and Spaniards of origin, since the former were discriminated against in many aspects. In addition, a certain nationalism began to appear against Spanish rule.

All that educational work made the Jesuits a threat to the Crown. The power of the order made it almost a state within a state.

Jesuit opposition to the centralizing reforms of the Bourbons was the final cause that led to their expulsion from Spain and the American colonies in 1767. To replace them, the government called in Franciscan religious, as well as a new bishop.

In addition to the opposition of the Creoles, this expulsion also provoked the anger of the indigenous people. The Jesuits had distinguished themselves by defending them against the abuses of many Spaniards, so they were left helpless.

Royal Certificate of 1804

This was a measure that sparked great protests in New Spain. In 1804, through a Royal Decree, he decreed that the real estate of ecclesiastical organizations be alienated.

The popular reaction against this measure was due to the fact that it affected all economic sectors of the viceroyalty, with the exception of large merchants. Thus, almost all farmland had mortgages and church censuses that its owners had to pay quickly. The money was to be sent to Spain.

Although the Church was the target of the Royal Decree, in practice it affected almost all the businessmen of the viceroyalty, as well as their workers. For the first time, these sectors came together to send a letter to the king in which they opposed the law.

The Crown, despite the opposition that its decree had provoked, decided to apply the measure. This was in force between September 1805 and January 1809 and assumed that the Spanish monarchy will earn several million pesos.

Cultural reforms

The Enlightenment was a philosophy that attached great importance to culture and education. The reforms developed by the Bourbons had some impact in these areas, although much less than in the political or economic.

New academic plant

Felipe V promoted the creation of three great cultural institutions. These, with a clear intention of standardizing culture in all territories controlled by Spain, formed what has been called the "new academic plant."

In 1712 the first of these institutions was created, the Royal Library. More important was the second, the Royal Spanish Academy, a key element in developing and extending the new Bourbon cultural model. Finally, in 1738 the Royal Academy of History was founded.

Educational institutions

The reforms in the field of education entailed a complete transformation of all educational levels, from primary school to universities.

In 1781, the Royal Academy of San Carlos de las Nobles Artes de Nueva España, antecedent of the UNAM, was founded. Other similar institutions were opened in those years, most of them aimed at training future workers.

Consequences

The consequences of the reforms implemented by the Bourbons were uneven. Some had positive effects, but others caused the American colonies to distance themselves from the metropolis.

Effects of the reforms

One of the most positive effects of the reforms was the removal of many administrative bodies that had ceased to make sense. The creation of dependencies supposed an improvement in the management of the commerce and in the collection of fees and taxes.

However, the Spanish Crown made the mistake of not taking into account the American reality of the time. Thus, the replacement of many Creole officials by others of peninsular origin caused resentment that would last until the wars of independence.

The different treatment that Spaniards of origin and those born in the colonies received was fundamental for the latter to acquire a consciousness of their own identity vis-à-vis Spain. Enlightened ideals also contributed to this fact.

Spanish imperial crisis

The crisis that ended the Spanish empire at the beginning of the 19th century was the best example of the general failure of the reforms promoted by the Bourbons.

The intention for Spain to regain its greatness and be able to face the rest of the European powers was unsuccessful. The Napoleonic invasion and the collapse of the Spanish monarchy marked the beginning of a process that would end with the independence of the American colonies.

References

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5. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. Bourbon Reforms. Retrieved from encyclopedia.com
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