NEUROPSYCHOLOGY: WHAT IT STUDIES, PROCESSES, METHODS, DISORDERS - GEOGRAFÍA - 2024

The Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that is responsible for studying how the nervous system, and especially the brain and its functions, affect thoughts, emotions and behaviors of individuals. It generally focuses on the effects of brain injury, but can also do research on the healthy functioning of the brain.

Neuropsychology combines both clinical and experimental practices in an attempt to understand the relationship between the mind and the brain. In many cases, her research focuses on studying neurological problems (such as brain damage or neurodegenerative diseases) to better understand the function of each area of the brain.

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Whereas classical neurology focuses primarily on nerve diseases and how to treat them, and psychology almost completely forgets about the brain, neuropsychology serves as a bridge between the two disciplines. Its basic concepts come from both the studies of both subjects and specialized research.

Neuropsychology can be used both as a research tool and in applied contexts. Thus, a specialist in this sector can work for example in rehabilitation clinics, in the field of forensic medicine, or in research centers such as universities or laboratories.

History of neuropsychology

Neuropsychology is a modern science that developed from the mid-20th century. The term "neuropsychology" was first collected in dictionaries in 1893. It was defined as a discipline that seeks to integrate psychological observations of behavior with neurological observations of the nervous system.

Still, the term neuropsychology was used sparingly. It began to spread in 1930 when Hebb used it in his book The Determinants of Conduct. A neuropsychological analysis.

But the term was consolidated more intensely when Hans L. Teuber presented his work Neuropsychology at the Congress of the American Psychological Association (APA) on psychological diagnostics and testing in 1948.

Between 1950 and 1965 human neuropsychology acquired a great development. It became firm with the appearance of two specialized international journals: “Neuropsychologia” founded in France in 1963 by Henry Hecaen, and “Cortex”, founded by Ennio de Renzi in 1964 in Italy.

Later various societies were created such as The International Neuropsychological Society (INS) and the Division of Neuropsychology of the APA in the United States.

- Periods

According to Ardila and Roselli (2007) we can divide the history of neuropsychology into four periods:

Preclassic period to 1861

This period begins with the first references to cognitive alterations linked to brain damage observed in Egypt around 3500 BC, ending with the influential theories of Franz Gall, the father of phrenology.

Classic period (1861-1945)

In 1861 a primitive skull was presented to the Anthropological Society of Paris. It was argued that there was a direct relationship between intellectual capacity and brain volume.

In that same year the famous patient “Tan”, studied by Paul Broca, died. This scientist, in the postmortem examination, showed that a lesion in the frontal posterior area could affect the ability to speak.

During this period, another fundamental advance occurred: the publication of Karl Wernicke's doctoral thesis in 1874. This author proposed the existence of an area of ​​the brain that helped us understand language. In addition, he observed that it connected with Broca's area.

Modern period (1945-1975)

This period begins after the Second World War. Due to the large number of war-wounded patients with brain injuries, more professionals were needed to perform diagnostic and rehabilitation procedures.

At this stage, AR Luria's book Traumatic aphasia appeared, published in 1947. In it he proposed several theories about the brain organization of language and its pathologies, based on observations obtained from patients wounded in the war.

Luria. Unknown (picture taken around 1940s)

On the other hand, it is worth highlighting the works of Geschwind, who proposed an explanation of cortical syndromes based on anomalies in the transmission of information between different centers of the cerebral cortex.

During this period, the development of research in various countries is also essential. In France, the work of Henri Hécaen stands out, while in Germany Poeck makes contributions on aphasias and apraxia.

In Italy, De Renzi, Vignolo and Gainitti are also focused on aphasic disorders, in addition to spatial and constructional skills.

In 1958 the Montevideo Neurology Institute was created. In England, the studies of Weigl, Warrington and Newcombe on language problems and perceptual disturbances are important.

In Spain, a working group specialized in neuropsychology led by Barraquer-Bordas was created. While in all European countries they create working groups around neuropsychology, establishing themselves as a scientific and functional area.

Contemporary period (since 1975)

This period is marked by the emergence of brain imaging such as computerized axial tomography (CT), which was a revolution in neuroscience.

This has allowed more precise anatomical-clinical correlations to be obtained and many concepts to be redefined and clarified. With the advances it has been possible to verify that there are other areas that are not "classic" in neuropsychology and that participate in cognitive processes.

In the 1990s, research advanced hand in hand with images that were not anatomical, but functional. For example, those obtained through functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET). These techniques allow observing brain activity during cognitive activities such as speaking, reading, thinking in words, etc.

Standardized assessment instruments are also included, with the aim of establishing a common language in neuropsychology. Some of them are: the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery, the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery, the Neuropsi, the Wechsler Memory Scale, the Boston Test for the Diagnosis of Aphasias, the Wisconsin Classification Test, the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure, etc.

What does neuropsychology study?

Neuropsychology is a very broad discipline, and each specialist can choose to focus on a different area of ​​study. However, although each case is unique, it is possible to establish a series of basic fields of study within this discipline.

Neuropsychology of perception

Perception was one of the first fields of study in neuropsychology. Specifically, the first researchers realized that there were specific areas of the brain that were responsible for processing information from the senses.

Within the neuropsychology of perception, agnosias are usually studied, which are perceptual disorders that can occur when there is some type of brain damage in the areas related to the interpretation of visual or auditory data.

Neuropsychology of attention

Attention is one of the psychological functions most studied by neuropsychology. It's about the ability to focus on the most important information at all times while leaving out data that is not relevant to what we are doing.

Neuropsychology has discovered several brain areas directly related to attention, among which the Ascending Reticular Activating System (SARA) stands out. In turn, the relationship of the prefrontal cortex with this cognitive function is also studied.

Neuropsychology of language

One of the cognitive functions that were previously studied from the brain point of view was language. Already at the beginning of the 20th century, two of the most important areas related to this ability were known: Broca's and Wernicke's.

Wernicke and Broca area

Today we know that the understanding and production of language involves many different areas and processes in the brain. Neuropsychologists continue to investigate the exact process that this function follows, in addition to studying some diseases related to it, such as aphasia.

Neuropsychology of memory

Memory is one of the most studied fields within the field of psychology. Despite the fact that much of the research was conducted exclusively within the field of functionality, neuropsychology continues to make new discoveries about the areas of the brain involved in this mental capacity.

Cerebral atrophy in brain affected by Alzheimer's

One of the most important fields of study within the neuropsychology of memory is that of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's. Experts in this area hope to eradicate these disorders as soon as possible, in order to improve the lives of people who suffer from them.

Neuropsychology of executive functions

Finally, one of the broadest fields within neuropsychology is the one that studies executive functions. These include a host of mental abilities and capacities that help us pursue goals, set goals, and regulate our behavior.

Thus, among the skills studied within the neuropsychology of executive functions are working memory, inhibition of responses, mental flexibility and decision-making.

Basic neuropsychological processes

Left and right cerebral hemisphere

We have already seen that neuropsychology can study all kinds of different processes. Some of the research carried out in this field can be very complex, but most have to do with a series of basic capacities that are fundamental for the correct functioning of our mind.

Among the basic processes studied by neuropsychology are the following.

Attention

The study of this process includes both the ability to maintain focus, and the ability to ignore external or internal stimuli that can distract us from what we are doing.

Memory

The study of memory includes a multitude of processes related to it, from long-term memory to visual and verbal retention capacity, or working memory.

Language

The study of language is one of the most complex and comprehensive, as it includes a large number of different approaches. Thus, this ability can be studied from the phonological, morphological, pragmatic or semantic point of view, among others.

Perception

The study of perception is usually divided according to the sense that is being investigated. Thus, there are specialists in the neuropsychology of vision or hearing, and each of them must face very different challenges.

Cognitive skills and executive functions

In addition to these basic fields, neuropsychology can also investigate various very important mental capacities for our day to day life. Some of the most common are cognitive flexibility, problem solving, motor and impulse control, academic abilities, thinking, and speed of information processing.

Methods and tools

The methods used by neuropsychology have evolved and adapted over time, as new discoveries were made in this and related fields. Thus, modern neuroimaging techniques, discoveries in fields such as cognitive psychology and the evolution of neuroscience in general have made it possible to develop increasingly advanced working methods.

In the beginning, neuropsychology was based on the study of the brain of people who had suffered an injury in life once they were dead. Thanks to these first investigations, some important areas for certain functions could be found, as in the case of Broca's and Wernicke's areas.

Thanks to the collection of these data, today modern neuropsychologists have a large amount of information that allows them to contrast the mental capacities of a patient with the most typical brain problems. To achieve this, they use all kinds of standardized tests, interviews and clinical tests that allow them to delve into the specific difficulties that each person suffers.

On the other hand, neuropsychology also uses modern neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging or electroencephalograms, which allow studying brain activity directly without having to carry out any type of surgery.

Activities of a neuropsychologist

As in most branches of psychology, those professionals who are dedicated to the study of the effects of the brain on our behavior can carry out their work in several different areas.

On the one hand, neuropsychologists can work as researchers, collecting new data on how our brain works and using it to develop existing theories or create new ones. This branch of neuropsychology is usually practiced in universities or private research centers, although it can also occur in hospitals.

In addition to this, neuropsychology can be used in an applied way. In cases where this occurs, brain experts work in collaboration with other health professionals to detect neurological problems and develop an appropriate action plan to solve or alleviate them through rehabilitation.

Main neuropsychological disorders

Neuropsychologists can work with patients with very different cognitive impairments. This means that the disorders they study can vary greatly, so it is common for each professional to specialize in a specific area of ​​work.

Most neuropsychological disorders are related to brain damage of some kind. Thus, among the most common diseases within this category we find Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, aphasia, epilepsy, allergy or agnosia. In this sense, the causes may be related to cerebral infarcts, tumors in this organ, or the presence of some neurodegenerative disease.

On the other hand, neuropsychologists can also work with the elderly with the aim of preserving their cognitive abilities as much as possible. In this sense, one of the objectives of this field is to discover how to prevent or cure dementias.

In addition to this, there are many other diseases that are not directly related to the brain but whose symptoms can be treated from the point of view of neuropsychology. In this group we find pathologies such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, depression or bipolar disorder.

Clinical neuropsychology

Clinical neuropsychology is one of the widest and most common fields of application within this discipline. In it, the objective is to use the knowledge obtained from research to diagnose people with brain problems and develop intervention plans that allow them to rehabilitate.

One of the peculiarities of clinical neuropsychology is that it uses a quite psychological approach in its treatments, with the aim of understanding what is the interaction between the mind and the brain in the effects of the problems of the patients.

Clinical neuropsychologists usually work in hospitals and other medical centers, and are primarily responsible for developing intervention plans that allow patients to work on their rehabilitation and regain the cognitive skills they have lost to the extent possible.

Child neuropsychology

Because it is still developing, a child's brain is very different from an adult's in many ways. Therefore, when neuropsychology began to expand, some professionals realized the need to conduct research with children to better understand them.

Within the field of child neuropsychology we can find two specialties: basic and clinical. The first is responsible for trying to understand the process of brain development of children and the way in which their higher brain functions operate. On the contrary, the second is based on the study of the different neurological pathologies that can affect people in childhood.

Thus, child neuropsychologists can collaborate with other health professionals to intervene in cases in which diseases such as brain tumors, cerebral palsy, epilepsy, language or autism spectrum disorders, learning difficulties or even head injuries appear.

As with general neuropsychology, the discoveries made by specialists in the basic branch are complemented by those who focus on diseases. In practice, child neuropsychologists work together to improve the lives of children affected by these pathologies.

Basic neuropsychology

Within the field of brain study we can find two very different branches: the one in charge of studying diseases and how to alleviate them, and the one that tries to understand basic cognitive processes. This second branch is known as basic neuropsychology.

Thus, basic neuropsychology is in charge of conducting research on capacities such as memory, attention, thought, perception or imagination. Experts in this field normally work in universities or private research centers, although due to the relationship between this branch and the clinic it is also possible to find them in medical centers.

Discoveries in basic neuropsychology are reinforced by those made in the clinical setting. In turn, research done by professionals in the basic branch can help to better understand the different neurological diseases that exist, and therefore to develop interventions and cures for them.

References

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4. "Child neuropsychology: what it is and what applications does it have" in: International University of Valencia. Retrieved on: February 16, 2020 from the International University of Valencia: universidadviu.es.
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