MAPUCHES: HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS, CUSTOMS, ECONOMY - CULTURE VOCABULARY - 2025

The Mapuches or Araucanians, as they were called at the end of the 18th century, are aboriginal groups that inhabit Chilean or Argentine territory. This ethnic group is usually considered to be one of the oldest since, according to historical vestiges, they were the ones that initiated and promoted the Pitrén culture (100-1100 AD) and El Vergel (1100-1450 AD).

Until the mid-14th century, the Mapuches were unified in both language and religious traditions. They lived between the island of Chiloé and the Copiapó river, but they did not form a cultural homogeneity since some castes had their own rules, which were established by the chief of each tribe.

Some ancestral traditions are maintained in the current generations of Mapuches. Source: Ministry of National Assets

After the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, all the populations ended up linking socially and economically with the aim of creating a collective identity to develop a fortress or a host that would help them fight the enemy army. Years later, this event caused group dissolution and emigration.

This emigration occurred due to the loss of lands that were usurped, causing the Mapuches to no longer depend on their resources but on the State. So, they opted for different ways of life: some moved to the cities and adapted to urban life, and others stayed in the countryside and preserved their rural customs.

Groupings

Image recovered from donquijote.org.

Mapuche society was divided into a group of leaderships in which the caciques had total power over the actions and decisions of the inhabitants.

These groups sought to be independent and not be related to the nation. Their ideal was to have a particular community and not be linked with other groups that were not indigenous, although that norm was not always followed.

For this reason, they proclaimed policies defined before the State so that it would not invade their territories.

However, in the course of the 18th century the caciques understood that the influence of Spanish activities - such as commerce, education and the continuous arrival of European travelers - would cause their power to dissolve.

For this reason, the tribes formalized a strategic treaty, which today can be interpreted as one of the most elaborate political programs around the pact with the border society.

That treaty was centered on the sense of belonging: the Mapuches were deeply rooted in their lands. Among the main groups of chiefdoms, the following stand out:

Abajinos, nagpuleches or lelfunches

It was the largest Mapuche population. Its inhabitants occupied the plains and mountain ranges of Nahuelbuta, located in the central valley. These fields were characterized by their fertility, which is why the people of Abajinos dedicated themselves to cattle ranching and agriculture.

Over time, three generations of nagpuleche or lelfunche stood out, which can be seen as key pieces when determining the role of indigenous people in society.

The first lived in the early nineteenth century: they were the caciques who fought to conquer the autonomy of Chile. The second generation participated in the war of 1860, while the third was made up of the chiefs who definitively occupied the space of Araucanía, around the time of 1880.

Arribanos or Huenteches

Unlike the Abajinos, the Arribanos were located close to the Mariluán leader, who was known for his bravery and wisdom. The Huenteche caste lived in the foothills of the Andes, where the lands were determined to be abundant; For this reason they focused on cattle work.

Despite being unified, their tradition stated that each town had a chief. The goal was for all power not to be focused on one person; furthermore, it was the only way to verify that the inhabitants complied with the customs.

Pehuenches or men of the mountain range

At the end of the 14th century, the Pehuenches were not part of the Mapuche ethnic group, as they were a free tribe that spoke another language. However, it was in the course of the eighteenth century when the men of the mountain ranges "araucanized" with the purpose of defending the territories and the agency of the natives.

The Pehuenches had different traditions from those of the Mapuches of the valley, although their physical features were assimilated.

The difference in habits was not only due to the fact that both groups were derived from diverse ethnic groups, but also to the environment they occupied. These indigenous people lived between the Andes Mountains of Chillán and in the upper Biobío.

That is, they were adapted to lower temperatures than the rest of the ethnic groups. They did not cultivate and their main food was the pine nut, with which they made flour to make bread or cake. Nor did they eat beef, but mare's.

Pampas and puelches, the eastern population

Mapuche groups were called men of the pampas that at the beginning of the 19th century managed to unify under the command of the military man Juan Calfucurá.

This cacique, from Chile, built a new community in the rural areas of Argentina. Among these regions, Patagonia and Salinas Grandes stood out.

Due to the tragic consequences left by the war for emancipation, some Puelches decided to move from one territory to another to escape the terror and decadence they were experiencing.

From that moment on, miscegenation originated in Argentina, since the ethnic groups that were in this space stripped themselves of the rigor of their customs.

This aspect caused the aborigines of the pampas to marry people of other lineages. Following their practices, the puelches dedicated themselves to agricultural work and animal husbandry.

Origin and history

The origin of the Mapuches, a term that in their mother tongue means “people of the land”, remains unknown. However, it is known that before the arrival of the colonizers these indigenous groups had been living in these territories for centuries, which later were called Americans.

According to historical hypotheses, these ethnic groups were already on earth since the period of 500 AD. However, it was during the Hispanic invasion when the populations were united socially and culturally with a common purpose: not to allow foreign domination.

In this sense, three events that determined the current state of the Mapuches should be emphasized: the Arauco War, the Battle of Curalaba and the occupation of Araucanía.

Arauco War (1536-1772)

This warlike conflict, which lasted around 236 years, began with the rebellion of the Mapuches against the submission of the Europeans.

Upon arriving in the Biobío region, the Spanish had a fragile concept about the indigenous people because they had managed to dominate the Inca Empire. The Iberians considered that, after having “civilized” one people, the others would be simpler.

However, upon learning of the intentions of the Hispanic military, the Mapuches set fire to the houses they built near the river and south of the mountain range. From that moment the kingdom of Castile was forced to maintain a professional army to guard the borders.

This was because the Mapuches used the landscape to their advantage, and the conquerors were forced to retreat. Another essential factor was the lack of food, since the mountain range where the struggle took place was characterized by being arid, although it was populated.

For this reason, the Hispanics considered stopping the colonization process on more than one occasion. This did not happen soon; In the Arauco war there were countless deaths, both from one side and the other.

Battle of Curalaba (1598)

This battle was fundamental because it determined the defensive ability of the Mapuches, who defeated the Chilean forces fighting for the Crown. The troops led by the Anganamon, Pelantaru and Hualquimilla indigenous peoples attacked and defeated the front commanded by Martín Ónez de Loyola.

The death of this Chilean governor caused the massive evasion of the inhabitants who were in the cities near the Araucanía region, as well as those who were in the Spanish camps.

This fact originated because the Mapuche hosts advanced rapidly in order to invade and annihilate everything that was linked to Spain.

This warlike action represented the beginning of the rebellion, which caused the Spanish to desist from colonizing the natives.

Occupation of Araucanía (1861-1883)

Despite the defeat, later the Spanish insisted on dominating the Mapuches, but they continued to defend themselves.

The attempt to subdue the indigenous people ceased in 1882, at which time the army of the Republic of Chile proclaimed a law called Pacification of Araucanía. The publication of this statute was made due to political interests.

The government, following the slogan of "eliminating the indigenous in the name of civilization," focused on creating another ideology whose purpose was to establish a particular identity. For this, it was necessary to control ethnic groups; Hence the idea of ​​not dispossessing them of their territories.

In 1861, after the war and acculturation of the Mapuches, the State signed a treaty stating that no one could evict them from their lands.

However, they did reduce the space, causing the emigration of some aboriginal groups due to the injustice of the pact. The sole purpose of the military and politicians was to end the enmity in order to exploit the Arauco area.

Mapuches today

The consequences of the battles and the occupation of Araucanía were the reduction of space and social disorganization, since in the course of the 20th century the Mapuches continued to be discriminated against. This is evidenced by the agrarian reforms they have carried out to regain their land, but which the government has consistently omitted.

As a consequence of the lack of resources, at the beginning of the XXI century the emigration of indigenous groups from rural to urban areas increased, in which their hardships do not end due to the lack of opportunities and appreciation.

Geographic location

The Mapuches are peoples that initially settled in the valleys of Chile; that area was their main center of activities. However, with the passing of time they grew and were distributed to the west of the Maullín river.

This ethnic group was also located in various areas of the important regions of Itata, Toltén, Choapa, Biobío and Chiloé.

After emigrating to Argentina, the Mapuches occupied the provinces of San Luis and Neuquén, as well as the areas of the pampas that were south of the Limay River.

characteristics

Teamwork

The Mapuches are characterized by being a population that worked as a team, even from the beginning, although they were in different tribes. This is how they forged the concept of community and maintained family ties.

Conception of nature

Another fundamental feature is the conception they have had about the environment that surrounds them. Despite the fact that they have always been deeply rooted in their lands, these ethnic groups consider that they do not belong to them.

The lands are a gift from nature and, therefore, they are nobody's but a borrowed resource for living. For this reason, the Mapuches consider that they must be cared for or, otherwise, they will disappear.

Language

These indigenous groups had their own language called Mapundungún, which varied depending on the region.

This language was of the agglutinating type and was part of the Araucanian subfamily. It had 27 phonemes: 21 consonants and 6 vowels. It was generally not used in writing and was used orally.

Polytheistic religion

Like the Incas and the Mayas, the Mapuches had a polytheistic religion: they had numerous gods to be successful in their daily tasks. After colonization, many natives did not accept Christianity because it meant offending their creative selves, and those who had been forced still secretly praised their divinities.

Customs and traditions

The Araucanians are aboriginal groups that, despite forming different ethnic groups, had similar customs and traditions that originated through the vision they had about man and nature.

Man was perceived as a whole, in which the body and the spirit were closely related to the cosmos.

On the other hand, nature was appreciated as a living entity in which every element existed. In this way, man was a social and natural being.

Some of the main traditions and customs that identified the Mapuche people will be developed below:

Marriage and parenting

The tradition was that on the wedding day the gentleman - in the company of his family - kidnapped the selected lady. This ceremony was allegorical, as it symbolized that the woman renounced her parental home to dedicate herself to her married life. However, the marriage was not formalized if the man did not pay the dowry.

It was better to keep the family circle; that is why the bride and groom had to marry their cousins. Similarly, in families more attached to custom, a man was allowed to have as many wives as he desired, depending on his resources.

Regarding upbringing, Mapuche children used to be educated by their paternal grandparents, who integrated them into social life from an early age so that they could learn chores and adapt to work.

Housing or ruka

The construction of a Mapuche house was a collective task, because when an individual was interested in forging his house, he looked for the wise man of the village to guide him in each movement.

The classic house followed the following structure: the only entrance was oriented towards the east, it did not have windows and it had triangular openings. The interior consisted of three areas: the bottom, where products were stored; the center, where the stove was placed; and the lateral sectors, where the beds were.

Music and games

The Mapuches also excelled in the cultural sphere, as they were a people that found in music and games a method to animate ritual ceremonies.

That is why they developed instruments such as the kultrun and the trutuca, artifacts that resemble trumpets and percussion elements.

As for the games, he highlighted the pailín, which consists of knights fights with club swords. The purpose was to honor the ancestors or the gods.

Economy

The economy of the Araucanians was based mainly on two sectors. The first was the development of agriculture, as they harvested products such as potatoes, corn and quinoas, which were sold in urban areas.

The second sector was the breeding and sale of animals. The indigenous people were in charge of ensuring that they did not have any defect when competing in tournaments.

They also made sure that the cattle feed was healthy so that it did not affect any individual who ate their meat.

In addition to these, the Mapuches had other occupations, such as the following, gathering wild plants, fishing, and manufacturing.

Social and political organization

The social and political organization of the Mapuche people was highly interrelated. It was under the power of the "lonko", who was the supreme leader. This cacique not only established the rules to be followed on the battlefield, but also those related to the home; For this, he named the parents or spouses as the head of each family.

The heads of families had the function of supervising whether the inhabitants complied with the ceremonies and construction regulations, as well as observing the progress of the plantings.

These aspects were then debated in the cahuines, meetings held by the main guides. Regarding the role of the wife, it was specified that, in case there were more than one, the authority would be the first.

"Lov"

The socio-political problems were dealt with in the "lov" and before the penates; the idea was for the gods to guide decisions. The "lov" was a kind of institution that all the inhabitants of a house could attend.

In times of war, the Mapuches organized a council where only men participated in order to elect military leaders, who used to be those who had experiences in battles, knowledge and wisdom.

Feeding

The diet of the Mapuches was characterized by being balanced: it contained cereals, vegetables, fruits, carbohydrates and few meats. Bread, tortillas, dressings and stews could not be missing from their daily meals.

The essential thing for these indigenous groups was the vitality of the body, which is why they produced their food. Among his recipes the following stood out:

Mültrün

It was a dough made with whole wheat that was first cooked and then crushed. With this, small spindle-shaped cylinders were prepared that were fried and eaten with honey.

Ñachi

It was a preparation that was made with the blood of the animals they had just killed. The blood was collected in a bowl that had chopped coriander and the mixture was seasoned with salt, chili, and lemon juice. Once condensed, the preparation was eaten directly from the cup.

Diweñ

It corresponds to some mushrooms that were prepared with coriander and seasoned chili pepper. This recipe was used as a side to roast meats. The curious thing about this preparation is that it was marketed in the center of the city.

Clothing

The way of dressing of the Mapuche was adjusted to their daily tasks, for that reason they tried that their clothes were simple.

At no time were they curious to expand their knowledge of fashion, despite the fact that women dominated the art of weaving. Even after colonization, some Araucanians did not change their clothing.

At present, men's clothing has been westernized, since they wear pants and flannels, retaining a few traditional features, such as the poncho and the hat.

In contrast, women's clothing tends to be maintained, especially among older women and girls who begin their participation in ritual ceremonies.

The great change in women's clothing is in the incorporation of footwear, because in previous decades Mapuche women lived practically barefoot.

Female attire

The feminine attire was characterized by having few garments, since the araucanas gave greater value to the jewels. Her wardrobe consisted of:

- Küpam (dress).

- Munulongko (veil).

- Ukülla (shawl).

- Ngütrowe (fabric inlaid with silver that was placed on the hair).

Male outfit

Traditional men's attire was designed for the workday and comfort. This consisted of the following:

- Chumpiru (baggy hat).

- Ekota (sandals).

- Makuñ (poncho).

- Sumel (shoes).

- Trariwe (belt made with wool).

References

1. Bengoa, J. (2010). History of the Mapuche people: 19th and 20th centuries. Retrieved on May 27, 2019 from Historia Magazine: historia.es
2. Dillehay, T. (2008). Araucanía: present and past. Retrieved on May 27, 2019 from the National Academy of History: docuhistoric.org.ve
3. González, L. (2012). Art and myth of the Mapuche culture. Retrieved on May 26, 2019 from the Historical Bulletin: boletinespublicados.org
4. Grebe, M. (2017). Cosmovision of the Mapuche world. Retrieved on May 27, 2019 from Universidad de Chile: archivos.cl
5. Hernández, A. (2002). Mapuche: language and culture. Retrieved on May 26, 2019 from Universidad Católica Andrés Bello: library.edu.ve
6. Ramos, N. (2005). Living conditions of indigenous peoples. Retrieved on May 27, 2019 from Academic Memory: testimonial.edu.ar