THE 10 MOST IMPORTANT MESOAMERICAN CULTURES - HISTORY - 2025

The Mesoamerican cultures are the aboriginal civilizations that developed in Mexico and Central America before the arrival of the Spanish in the sixteenth century. There were more than a dozen cultures that existed in Mesoamerica: Olmecs, Mayans, Mexica / Aztecs, Toltecs, Teotihuacanos, Zapotecs, Purepechas, Huastecas, Tlaxcaltecas, Totonacas and Chichimecas. In this article we will focus on the most prominent ones.

According to archaeologists, there is evidence that Mesoamerica has been populated by humans since 21,000 BC. These early Mesoamerican peoples were nomads. However, in the year 7000 a. C., the melting of the glaciers allowed the development of agriculture, which made these aborigines begin to be sedentary.

Mesoamerica

With the improvement of crops, the foundations for the creation of civilizations were established. From 2300 BC, artistic activities such as pottery and architecture were developed.

Originally, it was believed that Mesoamerican cultures had originated at the same time. However, scholars in the area have shown through archaeological evidence that these civilizations arose at different times. Similarly, they met their end in different years.

Olmec culture

Man-jaguar

The Olmec culture originated in southeastern Mexico between 1600 and 1400 BC and is believed to have disappeared in approximately 400 BC.

These aborigines laid the foundations that allowed the development of the other Mesoamerican cultures and significantly influenced the Mayan and Aztec civilizations.

Considered the mother of all Mesoamerican cultures, since it is the first of those that is registered, its name in the Nahuatl language means "people of the rubber country" and in fact in that area latex was extracted from the "castilla elastic" trees.

The Olmec culture is credited with the creation of the Mesoamerican ritual ball game, writing and epigraphy, the invention of the zero and the Mesoamerican calendar. His most emblematic art is the colossal heads.

- History

Its history is divided into the locations of its three capitals:

San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán

From 1200 BC to 900 BC, its location in alluvial plains favored the high production of corn, which influenced it to become the first sedentary civilization in America. It had a high population concentration that came to have a refined culture.

The ceremonial center of La Venta

After 900 BC there was an abandonment of San Lorenzo. The change of course of some rivers indicates that environmental changes influenced this fact, although the destruction of San Lorenzo in 950 BC suggests that there was an internal rebellion until 400 BC.

It was the center of this civilization, the period when the Great Pyramid and other ceremonial centers were built.

The three sapotes

From 400 BC to 200 BC, despite being the last Olmec phase, there was still a population in the post-Olmec stage and today there are many traces of their influence in present-day Veracruz.

- Economy

The Olmecs developed the planting and harvesting of corn, beans, hot peppers, sweet peppers, avocados, and squash. All of them crops that are still present in Mexican culture. They also developed an automatic irrigation system that allowed water to be brought to the less fertile lands, so that they were productive.

Fishing and hunting were other economic activities developed by the Olmecs. Similarly, this civilization was known for raising turkeys, which were valuable for both their meat and their feathers.

- Religion

The Olmec civilization was theocratic, which means that the government was subject to religious authorities, and polytheistic. Both sculpture and architecture were disciplines subordinate to religious practices; Olmec altars, temples and idols are proof of this.

Among his objects of worship, the jaguar was possibly the most important, who was also considered the god of the Earth.

The jaguar-men were also of great relevance. Some sculptures show half-human, half-jaguar deities. Other deities were the god of fire, the god of corn, the god of death, and the feathered serpent.

In the Olmec culture there was the figure of the shaman, in charge of directing religious rituals and who was attributed curative capacities.

- Art

Giant head replica. University of Texas at Austin. Extracted from "The Olmec Civilization and Background"

Olmec sculpture exhibition: "The Twins". Photo recovered from "The Olmec Civilization and Background"

Mask carved in jade. Recovered from "The Olmec Civilization and Background"

Sculpture is one of the most representative artistic disciplines of the Olmecs. Its main sculptures are known as "the giant heads", representations sculpted in stone (mainly in basalt and adorned with jade), which can measure up to 3.4 meters.

Today, it is believed that they were made in honor of the most famous leaders, warriors and ancestors of civilization. The first head was discovered in 1862 in southern Veracruz.

There are two recurring elements in Olmec artistic representations: the use of jade and the jaguar symbol. The latter was considered a symbol of power not only by the Olmec culture but also by other aboriginal cultures of Central America.

For more information:

• Cultural contributions of the Olmecs.
• Olmec gods.
• Geographic location of the Olmecs.
• Education of the Olmecs.
• Economic activities of the Olmecs.
• Ceremonial centers of the Olmecs.

Mexica / Aztec culture

Topoglyph of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. (XcepticZP).

The Mexica, also called Aztecs, were an originally nomadic people who arrived in Mesoamerica during the 14th century. It is said that this tribe was considered inferior by the other civilizations of Central America, because it was nomadic.

However, by the 15th century, the Aztecs had already assimilated the cultures that surrounded them and laid the foundations for the construction of what would later be known as the Aztec Empire.

They adapted to the environment in which they had to live; they built canoes to subsist by fishing in the nearby waters; they worked the land to make it fertile and productive, and built dikes and irrigation systems.

When they were fully established, they began to create an empire through the conquest of other lesser tribes.

These conquered tribes had to pay tribute to the Aztecs. In this way, they guaranteed another source of food and goods (such as jewelry, clothing), as well as prisoners who were sacrificed to feed the gods.

At the beginning of the 16th century, the Aztec civilization was considered one of the most powerful in Mesoamerica and comprised central and southern Mexico, as well as the territories of Nicaragua and Guatemala.

- Origin and location

In Nahuatl, Aztec means "the people who came from Aztlán." According to a Mexican myth, his people left Aztlán until they found their new settlement, building the city in Tenochtitlan. They decided to call this place Mexihco, which means "in the navel of the moon," where Mexihcas comes from.

Therefore, the fundamental difference is that the Aztecs would be the ones who migrated, but once settled they were called Mexica. On the other hand, it is important to remember that this origin in Aztlán is a myth.

The geographical location of the Mexica extended over the center and south of present-day Mexico. Its origins date from after the fall of the Toltec Empire, between the 10th and 11th centuries.

Reconstruction of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Source: search.creativecommons.org

The real origin of the Mexica consisted of a great immigration of Nahuatl-speaking groups from the North of present-day Mexico -chichimeca peoples-, which flooded the central plateau of Mexico, around Lake Texcoco. They were among the last populations to arrive in the area, so they had to occupy the swampy area west of the lake.

Their religious belief in a legend that said that a powerful people would rise in a swampy area where there was a cactus and an eagle devouring a snake, was what allowed them to cling and prosper in the area.

This tradition continues today and can be seen among other places on Mexican bills and coins. In 1325 they founded Tenochtitlán, located in the current capital of Mexico.

Around the lake that they bordered they developed a system of gardens called chinampas, which were logs supported on sand that formed artificial islands. Roads and bridges were built that drained the area and connected them to the mainland.

In its splendor, it had 38 tributary provinces, however the most remote provinces fought for their independence, which is why they allied with Hernán Cortes and unfortunately facilitated the disappearance of the Aztec people.

- Farming

Agriculture was the basis of the economy of the Mexica. They developed the cultivation of corn, which was the most important food, as well as chili peppers, beans, tobacco and cocoa.

They practiced the slash and burn system, which generated positive results. They also built irrigation canals that allowed them to sow in poorly fertile areas.

- Education

Mexican children were educated at home from the age of three. Fathers educated boys while mothers educated girls. At the age of 15, the young nobles could begin their studies at the school of Tenochtitlan, Calmecac.

This school trained rich young men in the areas of medicine, astronomy, calculus, writing, history, literature, philosophy, law, management of state affairs, and military strategy.

The young people of the middle class attended the Telpochcalli school, where they learned to work with stone, to sculpt, and trained as warriors.

For their part, the young women were educated as priestesses and learned to weave, work with feathers and make religious objects.

- The code of behavior

A relevant element of Mexica education and way of life was the code of behavior that was taught in all schools and was even part of a written law. Failure to comply with any of these rules could be paid for with death.

Here is a list of some of the rules in the code of behavior:

1- Do not make fun of the elderly.

2- Do not make fun of the sick.

3- Do not interrupt when another speaks.

4- Do not complain.

- Religion

Religion was a relevant element for the Mexica culture. They were polytheists because they worshiped various gods and goddesses who represented elements of daily life. Some of them are the Sun God and the Moon Goddess, the God of Rain and the God of Fertility.

Their religious beliefs have made the Mexica considered bloodthirsty, since they made human sacrifices to satisfy the need for human blood that some gods had. For example, Huitzilopochtli, the sun god, had to be fed continuously with blood; otherwise, I would stop going out every day.

Religion was related to every aspect of Aboriginal life. For example, they waged wars against other tribes to have a continuous supply of prisoners who could be sacrificed when the gods wanted.

Likewise, religion was closely connected to architecture. On the pyramids, the Aztecs built temples to worship their gods and perform sacrifices.

- Mexican gods

Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca

Some of the most prominent gods were:

-Quetzalcoatl: he is the god of nature, including the earth and the sky. Its name means "feathered serpent".

–Chalchiuhtlicue: she is the goddess of bodies of water, lakes, oceans and rivers.

–Chicomecoatl: she is the goddess of corn.

–Mictlantecuhtli: he is the god of death. It is usually represented with a skull in a face position.

-Tezcatlipoca: is the god of the sky and the night wind. It is usually related to black stones like obsidian.

For more information:

• Aztec gods.
• Religion of the Aztecs.
• Political organization of the Aztecs.
• Social organization of the Aztecs.
• Aztec cities.
• Agriculture of the Aztecs.
• Economy of the Aztecs.

Mayan culture

Copy of the painting of Bonampak in Chetumal. This is an artist's copy of a mural at the Temple of Murals at Bonampak, a Mayan archaeological site.

The Mayan culture, developed in the territory that is currently divided into Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador, is probably one of the most brilliant and successful civilizations. This prestige is due to the fact that they developed various areas of knowledge, including astronomy, writing and mathematics.

Agriculture was essential in the Mayan economy, with corn being the main crop. Cotton, beans, cassava, and cocoa were also grown. His textile techniques reached a high degree of development.

The commercial exchange of this town was carried out through cocoa seeds and copper bells, a material that was also used for ornamental works. Like gold, silver, jade, among others.

The monumental ruins of Palenque, Mayapán, Copán, Tulún and Chichén Itzá, among many others, let us know for sure the kind of architecture that was used at this time, outlining three styles: El Río Bec, El Chenes and the Puuc.

Palenque, Chiapas. Source: pixabay.com

The distribution of the cities was based on stepped pyramidal structures covered with blocks, crowned by a temple and distributed around open squares.

- Economy

The Mayans systematized agriculture. The archaeological remains give evidence of a great development in relation to this area; there are canals in the Valley of Guatemala that show the use of irrigation systems in the highlands.

On the other hand, in the lowlands, drainage systems were used to make the marshy areas arable. Like other Mesoamerican cultures, they developed the cultivation of corn, beans, squash, and sweet peanuts. They practiced felling and burning.

- Architecture

The Mayan civilization built temples and ceremonial centers; being the pyramids the maximum representation of the architecture. For their constructions, they used stone. Mainly, lime, a material that was carved to create bas-reliefs as an ornament.

These bas-reliefs represented, among other things, scenes of Mayan life, especially relevant events in the lives of the leaders.

Kukulkán Temple (Chichen Itzá)

Mayan inventions

The Mayans were successful in various areas of learning and made great contributions. With regard to writing, the Mayans developed a hieroglyphic system that, unlike pictorial writing, represented spoken language.

This system was made up of symbols that represented syllables and sometimes words. Samples of this writing can be appreciated in his books, known as codices.

In the same way, the Mayans had mathematical knowledge, especially in astronomy, which allowed them to build various calendars. One was based on the solar year, which lasted 18 months (20 days each) and five extra days, which were considered bad luck.

Another was the sacred calendar that had 260 days, divided into 13 cycles, used to mark the beginning of religious festivals and predict fate.

They also created tables with the position of the moon and Venus, which allowed them to accurately predict when there would be a solar eclipse.

- Religion

On the left, god of corn. On the right, god of rain. Available at Maya People. Source: britannica.com

The Mayan religion was polytheistic, with several gods, and is based on the cyclical perception of time, which translates into the belief of reincarnation. Because the Aborigines depended on corn crops, the god of corn was of vital importance.

Torture and human sacrifice were religious rituals, although they were not as common or sumptuous as those performed by the Aztecs. It was believed that these rituals guaranteed fertility and made the gods happy. If not, chaos would take over the world.

The Mayans considered that the blood resulting from the sacrifices nourished the gods and, therefore, was necessary to establish contact with them. Likewise, self-sacrifice and flagellation were common practices among priests and nobles.

- The role of women

It is important to note that, unlike other cultures of the time, women actively participated in Mayan society. They were not limited to caring for and educating children, but could be involved in economic and governmental activities.

For more information

• Political organization of the Mayans.
• Mayan gods.
• Economy of the Mayans.
• Education of the Maya.
• Ceremonial centers of the Mayans.
• Social organization of the Mayans.
• Food of the Mayans.
• Geographic and temporal location of the Mayans.

Toltec culture

Toltec pyramid in Tula. Source: wikimedia commons.

The Toltecs dominated the northern highlands of Mexico during the 10th and 12th centuries. Its main populated centers were Huapalcalco in Tulancingo and the city of Tollan-Xicocotitlan, located in what is now known as Tula de Allende, in the state of Hidalgo. Its name comes from Nahuatl, which means "inhabitant of Tula".

Of great influence has been in the architecture, which the Mayans refined in the styles present in Chichen-Itza, the Castle and the Temple of the Warriors. They are particularly famous for their giant statues called Atlanteans.

Toltec figures. Steve Cadman from London, UK / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)

For more information:

• Toltec religion and gods.
• Government of the Toltecs.
• Toltec economy.
• Toltec agriculture.
• Ceremonial centers of the Toltecs.

Zapotec culture

Source: pixabay.com

The Zapotecs occupied part of the current states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla. Little is known of its origin, although its name in Nahuatl can be translated as "people of the clouds." There is no legend that tells of their beginnings, although they themselves considered themselves descendants of the gods.

Their main city was Monte Albán, where they left archaeological evidence in the form of ballgame stadiums, magnificent tombs, and valuable pieces of goldsmithing.

They reached a high cultural level and were one of the few that developed a complex writing system. Its decline came as a result of the struggle with the Mexica for the trade routes to Chiapas, Veracruz and Guatemala.

For more information:

• Contributions of the Zapotecs.
• Zapotec food.
• Zapotec location.
• Zapotec economy.
• Zapotec dress.
• Zapotec political and social organization.
• Zapotec ceremonial centers.

Teotihuacan culture

Source: pixabay.com

The Teotihuacan culture began to develop settlements around 100 BC. Within what would be the Teotihuacan metropolis a few centuries later. Its apogee occurs in the Early Classic period of Mesoamerica (II / III-VI centuries).

It is the most enigmatic of the Mesoamerican civilizations, since its disappearance was long before the arrival of the Spanish and they have no records of its existence.

Even the same Mexica people near the city of Tenochtitlán knew very little about the Teotihuacanes, because this culture emerged after their disappearance.

It is known that this civilization built the city of Teotihuacán. This name was given by the Aztecs and means "place where the gods were born", since they found it abandoned and believed that it was the foundation stone of the universe. In its heyday it was a metropolis of more than 100,000 inhabitants, and the nerve center of Mesoamerica.

It is the Mesoamerican civilization with the most religious ceremonial centers, which were monumental, highlighting the Temple of Quetzalcóatl, the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Sun, which is the third largest in the world.

The change from religious to military motifs in their crafts have served to establish the hypothesis that a warlike conflict was the cause of their decline.

For more information:

• Teotihuacan economy.
• Teotihuacan religion.
• Teotihuacan gods.
• Political and social organization.

Other notable Mesoamerican cultures

Purepecha culture

Purépecha people. Fray Jerónimo de Alcalá (1540). Public domain

Known by the Spanish conquerors as the Tarascan culture, they settled mainly in the Michoacán region. They were dedicated to agriculture, hunting, food gathering and crafts.

• For more information: Purépecha Culture: Characteristics, Origins, Traditions.

Huastecas

Huasteca statue in the Xalapa Museum of Anthropology. Louvre Museum / Public domain

Located on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, they were descendants of the Mayans. They are not a particularly well-defined culture due to their miscegenation, being the Teenek tribe the one that had the most cultural importance. It is estimated that the first settlements occurred between 1500 BC. C. and 900 a. C.

• For more information: Huasteca Culture: Origin, Traditions and Characteristics.

Tlaxcalans

Tlaxcala warriors. Source: Afitas20 / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)

They owe their name to the fact that they were mainly settled in Tlaxcala. They were born from the union of several tribes in the area, becoming one of the main civilizations of Mexico before the Spanish conquest.

• For more information: Tlaxcaltecas: location, history, scientific and cultural contributions.

Totonacas

Tajín Pyramid - Source: Iridianrr13 The Totonacs came from the north of the country to settle in Veracruz and regions near the center. El Tajín, Papantla and Cempoala were its most important urban centers, which stand out for their great monumental value.

• For more information: Totonac culture: location, origin, characteristics, religion.

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