DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: DEFINITION, TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS - SCIENCE - 2025

The descriptive research descriptive or research method is the procedure used in science to describe the characteristics of the phenomenon, subject or population to be studied. Unlike the analytical method, it does not describe why a phenomenon occurs, but rather limits itself to observing what happens without seeking an explanation.

Along with comparative and experimental research, it is one of the three research models used in the area of ​​science. This type of research does not include the use of hypotheses or predictions, but rather the search for the characteristics of the studied phenomenon that interest the researcher.

It also does not answer questions about why, how or when the phenomenon occurs. Instead, he limits himself to answering "what is the phenomenon and what are its properties?"

Definition of descriptive research

In the introduction we mentioned that descriptive research is that research method that focused on describing the characteristics of a subject or phenomenon without stopping to analyze and explain why it occurs.

Some authors have delved a little more into the concept and definition, some of the following being the most recognized:

According to Mario Tamayo and Tamayo

In his work The process of scientific research (1994), the author defines descriptive research as the “record, analysis and interpretation of current nature and the composition or processes of phenomena. The focus is on dominant conclusions or on how a person, group or thing conducts or functions in the present.

According to Carlos Sabino

Sabino defines descriptive research in his work The Research Process (1992) as “the type of research whose primary concern is to describe some fundamental characteristics of homogeneous sets of phenomena.

To do this, they use systematic criteria that make it possible to reveal the structure or behavior of the phenomena under study, thus providing systematic information that is comparable to that from other sources.

When it's used?

This research model is used when there is little information on the phenomenon. For this reason, descriptive research is usually a work prior to expository research, since knowledge of the properties of a given phenomenon allows explanations to other related issues.

It is a type of research that is used to study phenomena or subjects in a qualitative way, before doing it in a quantitative way. The researchers who use it are usually sociologists, anthropologists, psychologists, pedagogues, biologists… Examples:

-A biologist who observes and describes the behavior of a pack of wolves.

-A psychologist who observes and describes the behavior of a group of people.

In general, this model is used to categorize the population into so-called 'descriptive categories'. This type of research is usually carried out prior to any type of analytical research, since the creation of different categories helps scientists to better understand the phenomenon they must study.

In general, the descriptive method is framed within what is known as qualitative research. In this type of research, the most important thing is to fully understand the population studied, instead of discovering different cause and effect relationships (contrary to what happens in quantitative research).

To describe and understand the phenomenon, the researcher can be accompanied by quantitative techniques such as the survey.

Differences between descriptive and analytical method

The main difference between both styles of research is that descriptive studies only try to understand the phenomenon studied without trying to explain why it occurs. Rather, analytical studies focus on understanding the variables that cause the phenomenon to occur.

Research methods differ totally between descriptive and analytical studies. Despite the fact that there are several ways of carrying out each of the two types of research, we can say that in analytical studies the researcher tries to influence in some way what he is observing. On the contrary, in descriptive studies, it is only limited to observing.

Types of descriptive research

Basically, we can find three ways to carry out descriptive research:

• Observational method
• Study of cases
• Polls

Each of these ways of doing descriptive research are indicated to study a different type of phenomenon. For example, surveys are very useful for learning more about different human behaviors, while observation is the preferred method for studying different animal populations.

We will discuss each of the three methods in depth below:

- Observational method

This type of descriptive research is also known as "naturalistic observation." It is used mainly to observe different events that occur naturally in the lives of animals or people.

Naturalistic observation is widely used by biologists and ethologists who study animal behavior to understand different species. One of the most famous researchers, specializing in this method, is Dr. Jane Goodall.

Goodall has been observing a community of chimpanzees in their natural environment in Tanzania for more than 50 years. Her work consisted of integrating herself into the routine life of the apes, in such a way that she was able to observe hitherto unknown phenomena of their way of life.

Some of his research discoveries have allowed the science of animal behavior to advance enormously. For example, this researcher found that chimpanzees are capable of using tools, something that until not long ago was believed to be an exclusively human capacity.

Regarding work with people, the most relevant studies are those carried out by developmental psychologists. These researchers observe children in their natural environments (for example, in a playroom in the presence of their parents).

Through the observations made by these psychologists, today we know much more about how the intellectual and emotional development of babies occurs. This also allows us to intervene on problems that occur in adulthood more effectively.

One of the most important measures of the observational method is 'inter-rater reliability'. Basically, this means that the results of an observational investigation must be able to be replicated by another scientist who is dedicated to observing the same phenomena.

Types

Observation can be of two types: indirect and direct. Indirect observation occurs when the researcher studies the phenomenon from written or audiovisual records: documents, books, photographs, videos, among others.

This method has limits, since the records on the phenomenon may not be as abundant as the researcher would like.

In general, this collection instrument is used when it is dangerous to observe the phenomenon directly, the necessary funds are not available to do so, or the phenomenon occurred in the past and no longer exists in the present.

For its part, direct observation occurs when the researcher enters the environment in which the phenomenon takes place or vice versa. In this sense, the researcher does not depend on secondary sources, but can observe the object of study for himself.

Wherever possible, researchers prefer the use of direct observation, since data obtained from personal experience are more reliant.

With this type of instrument, care must be taken that the mere presence of the observer does not alter the behavior of the phenomenon. If this happened, the data would not be valid.

- Study of cases

This type of observational research is based on the study of an individual or a small group of them. In this case, it is investigated in depth about the different experiences and behaviors of the study subjects.

Depending on the phenomenon you want to know more about, case studies can be carried out with normal individuals, or with individuals with some type of problem. These latter case studies are often more interesting as they allow us to better understand the differences between normal people and those with some type of disorder.

On the other hand, by studying the experiences of people who deviate from the average, we can also learn more about human nature in general. This method was the favorite of Sigmun Freud, one of the first and most famous psychologists in history.

Probably one of the best-known and most impressive case studies is that of Phineas Gage, a 19th century worker who suffered an accident at work that caused serious brain damage. His skull was completely pierced by a metal bar, receiving very serious injuries to the frontal lobe.

As a consequence of his accident, the case studies of the time reported that the worker suffered a sudden change in personality. The researchers described it as "his animal urges were stronger than his rationality."

This case helped neuroscience to discover the role that the frontal lobe plays in moderating instincts.

- Surveys

The last type of descriptive research is that carried out through surveys. Surveys are a series of standardized questions posed to a group of individuals, either face-to-face, over the phone, in writing, or online.

Surveys serve to better understand the beliefs, behaviors and thoughts of the group of people interviewed. In this way, a certain number of participants are chosen, who are assumed to be representative of the entire population relevant to the researcher.

Within the field of psychology, for example, surveys serve to better understand the prevalence of certain phenomena, such as mental disorders, homosexuality, or certain personality traits.

However, like all forms of research in which participants are aware of their role, surveys have a problem: you cannot be sure that the answers are true. Therefore, the results obtained with this research method must be contrasted with other more reliable ones.

characteristics

- The information provided by the descriptive research must be truthful, precise and systematic.

- Avoid making inferences about the phenomenon. What matters are the observable and verifiable characteristics.

- Descriptive work focuses on responding to "what?" and to the "which one?" The other questions (how, when and why) are not of interest in this type of investigation. The basic questions of this type of research are: "what is the phenomenon?" and "what are its characteristics?"

- The research question must be original and creative. It makes no sense to carry out a descriptive study on a topic that has already been worked on from all possible perspectives.

- The data collection methods used are observation, survey and case studies. From observation, qualitative data are usually extracted, whereas the survey usually provides quantitative data.

- Descriptive research does not include variables. This means that it does not depend on factors or conditions that can modify the results obtained.

- As there are no variables, the researcher has no control over the phenomenon studied. It is simply limited to collecting the information provided by the data collection instruments.

- It is not enough to present the characteristics of the phenomenon that were obtained through the data collection methods. It is also necessary that these be organized and analyzed in the light of an appropriate theoretical framework, which will support the research.

- In descriptive research, no comparisons are made between the phenomenon studied and other phenomena. That is the object of comparative research.

- Relationships can be established between the data obtained, in order to classify them into categories (called descriptive categories). However, these relationships cannot be cause and effect, since it would be impossible to obtain this type of information as there are no variables available.

Advantages and disadvantages

As with any type of scientific research, the descriptive one has a series of pros and cons when it comes to its application.

Advantage

- Its methodology ensures that there is no report deviation, so it allows to measure the actual behavior of the subject / phenomenon.

- The possibilities of distortion when collecting information are reduced, since only the observable is computed.

Disadvantages

- Provides very basic information on the subject / phenomenon, since it does not stop to analyze the reasons for their behavior, attitude, preferences or beliefs.

- The research perspective can be influenced by the researcher's perception.

- It is an expensive procedure because it can take a long time to collect enough information based on simple observation.

- It can give vague or incomplete information, since it cannot be analyzed statistically.

- Some do not consider it to be a valid scientific research, which can generate rejection in certain institutions or scientists.

Themes of interest

Documentary research.

Basic investigation.

Field research.

Exploratory investigation.

Scientific method.

Applied research.

Pure research.

Explanatory research.

Observational study.

References

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