BYZANTINE EMPIRE: ORIGIN, CHARACTERISTICS, CULTURE, ECONOMY - HISTORY - 2025

The Byzantine Empire or Eastern Roman Empire, was one of the three centers of power throughout the Middle Ages. It was born after the division of the Roman Empire, in 395. The western part remained, very weakened, with the capital in Rome. The eastern one, established its capital in Byzantium, today called Istanbul, and also known as Constantinople.

It was Theodosius who decided to carry out the division. During his reign, it was impossible for him to keep the empire's borders safe and, furthermore, maintaining the vast territory was economically unviable.

Finally, he made the decision to divide his domains in two. The newly created Eastern Empire passed into the hands of his son, Akkadius and eventually outlived its western counterpart. The latter disappeared in the year 476, unable to defend itself from the attack of the Germans.

For its part, the Byzantine Empire did manage to overcome those attacks. It went through periods of great boom, being one of the most prestigious political and cultural hubs in Europe. It was the Turks who, in 1453, put an end to the Empire, when they conquered the capital. This date is considered the end of the Middle Ages.

One of its main characteristics is that, over the years, it ended up becoming a meeting point between the West and the East, between Europe and Asia. In fact, during the crusades, the Franks accused the Byzantines of having too many eastern customs.

Origin

Background

The geographical, political and cultural background of the Byzantine Empire dates back to the conquests made by Alexander the Great. Part of the territory conquered by the Macedonian remained united for centuries, although with frequent confrontations between Anatolia and Greece.

In the end, the rulers of both lands saw how Rome ended up taking power and they became provinces of the Empire. Despite this, they managed to maintain their own cultural traits, a mixture of Hellenistic heritage with oriental influences.

The first administrative division in the Roman Empire was established by Diocletian in the late 3rd century. This divided the Empire into two parts, with a different emperor in each area. However, when he lost power, he reverted to the traditional system with a single center of power, Rome.

It was Constantine who managed to pacify the territory after the years of war that had followed the decision to eliminate the aforementioned division. In 330, he ordered the rebuilding of Byzantium, which he called New Rome. As a tribute to the emperor, the city was also known as Constantinople.

Creation of the Empire

In 395, Rome was going through difficult times. Its borders were besieged and attacked by the Germans and other barbarian tribes. The economy was very precarious and it was unable to meet the expenses that the defense of such a large territory needed.

These circumstances, among some others, were what led the Emperor Theodosius to definitively divide the Empire. His two sons were designated to occupy the respective thrones: Flavio Honorio, in the West; and Acadio, in the East.

The capital of this second court was established in Constantinople, at which time historians mark the birth of the Byzantine Empire. Although Rome would fall a few decades later, Byzantium would remain for almost a millennium.

Consolidation

While what was left of the Western Roman Empire was in decline, in the East the opposite was happening. Contrary to what happened to Rome, they were able to withstand the barbarian invasions, strengthening themselves in the process.

Constantinople was growing and gaining influence, despite the continuous waves that Visigoths, Huns and Ostrogoths launched against it.

When the danger of invasion attempts ended, the Western Empire had disappeared. The one from the East, on the other hand, was on the verge of living its most splendid moment.

This arrived under the mandate of Justinian, who supposed the extension of its borders until almost reaching the same extension that the Roman Empire had had.

Main features

The development of Orthodox Christianity

In religious matters, the Byzantine Empire was characterized by being a Christian state. In fact, his political power was founded on the authority of the church.

The emperor was second in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, because always, above him was the Pope in Rome.

Within the Byzantine Empire the Orthodox Christian Church originated. This religious trend was very important in the territories of Bulgaria, Russia and Serbia and is currently one of the largest churches in the world.

Business development

Thanks to its strategic location between Europe, Asia and Africa, the Byzantine Empire was one of the main terminals of the Silk Road and the most important commercial center during the Middle Ages.

Due to this, the Ottoman invasion caused a break in the Silk Road, which forced the European powers to seek other trade routes. Search that concluded in the Discovery of America.

Cultural development

The Byzantine Empire had a broad cultural development and a fundamental participation in the preservation and transmission of classical thought. Its historiographical tradition kept the artistic, architectural and philosophical tradition alive.

For this reason, it is considered that the cultural development of this empire was important for the cultural development of all humanity.

The artistic legacy

One of the main cultural contributions of the Byzantine Empire was its artistic legacy. From the beginning of its decadence, the artists of the empire sought refuge in nearby countries, where they brought their work and their influence that would later nurture the art of the Renaissance.

Byzantine art was highly prized in its day, therefore Western artists were open to its influences. An example of this is the Italian painter Giotto, one of the leading exponents of early Renaissance painting.

The architectural legacy

The Byzantine architectural style is characterized by a naturalistic style and by the use of the techniques of the Greek and Roman empires, mixed with the themes of Christianity.

The influence of Byzantine architecture can be found in different countries from Egypt to Russia. These trends are especially visible in religious buildings such as Westminster Cathedral, typical of neo-Byzantine architecture.

Byzantine discussions

One of the main cultural practices that characterized the Byzantine Empire were philosophical and theological debates and discourses. Thanks to these, the scientific and philosophical heritage of the ancient Greek thinkers were kept alive.

In fact, the concept "Byzantine discussions" whose use remains in force to this day, comes from this culture of debate.

It particularly refers to the discussions that took place in the councils of the early Orthodox Church, where issues were discussed without much relevance motivated by a great interest in the very fact of debating.

The role of women

Society in the Byzantine Empire was highly religious and family-oriented. Women had a spiritual status equal to that of men and also occupied an important place within the constitution of family nuclei.

Although submissive attitudes were required of them, some of them participated in politics and commerce. They also had the right to inherit and even in some cases possessed wealth independent of that of their husbands.

Eunuchs

Eunuchs, men who had undergone castration, were another characteristic of the Byzantine Empire. There was a custom of practicing castration as a punishment for certain crimes, but it also used to be applied to young children.

In the latter case, eunuchs rose to high positions at court because they were considered trustworthy. This due to their inability to claim the throne and have descendants.

Diplomacy

One of the most important characteristics of the Byzantine Empire was the ability to stay alive for more than 1000 years.

This achievement was not due to the armed defense of the territory, but to the administrative capacities that included a successful handling of diplomacy.

Byzantine emperors were inclined to avoid wars as much as possible. This attitude was the best defense, taking into account that, due to its strategic location, they could be attacked from any of its borders.

Thanks to its diplomatic attitude, the Byzantine Empire also became a cultural bridge that allowed the interaction of different cultures. A characteristic that was decisive in the development of art and culture in Europe and the entire Western world.

Greco-Roman vision of themselves

One of the most important characteristics of the Byzantine Empire was the vision they had of themselves. This was a mix between their consideration of being the authentic Romans after the demise of the empire and their Greek cultural heritage.

In the first case, there came a time when they felt they were the only heirs of the Roman tradition, coming to despise the rest of the Europeans who had been conquered by the barbarians.

The writings of Ana Comneno, daughter of the Emperor Alexios I, clearly reflects the opinion of the Byzantines on the way of being, barbarous for them, of the Crusader knights who passed through Constantinople.

On the other hand, Eastern Greek culture was evident in Byzantine customs. Hence the concept of "Byzantine discussions" was born, which the crusaders ridiculed as soft, intellectual and too similar to the oriental.

In a practical aspect, the Greek influence was reflected in the name of its monarch. In the 7th century they changed the old Roman title from "August" to the Greek "basileus". Similarly, the official language became Greek.

Justinian boom

It was during the reign of Justinian when the Byzantine Empire reached its maximum splendor and, therefore, when they best reflected its characteristics.

The reign occurred in the 6th century and, during it, a great territorial extension took place. Besides, Constantinople was the world center in terms of culture.

Great buildings were built, such as the Basilica of Hagia Sophia and the imperial palace. This was supplied with water by an aqueduct on the outskirts and numerous underground cisterns that ran through the city.

However, the expenses incurred by the emperor ended up taking their toll on the public coffers. This was joined by a great plague epidemic, which killed almost a quarter of the population.

Society and politics

The army was one of the keys in Byzantine society. He preserved the tactics that had led Rome to conquer all of Europe and united them with some of those developed by the armies of the Middle East.

This gave it the strength to resist the onslaught of the barbarians and, later, to expand over a wide territory.

On the other hand, the geographical location of Byzantium, in the middle of the route between the West and the East, made maritime control essential for the Empire. His navy controlled the main trade routes, as well as prevented the capital from ever being besieged and unable to stock up on supplies.

As for the social structure, it was strongly hierarchical. At the top was the emperor, called "basileus". His power came directly from God, so he was legitimized before his subjects.

For this he had the complicity of the Church. Byzantium had Christianity as its official religion and, although there were some heresies that achieved some force, in the end a very orthodox view of the scriptures was firmly established.

Culture

One of the things that surprised the first crusaders who arrived in Byzantium was the taste for luxury that its inhabitants showed. The more favored classes had a taste, according to some European historians of the time, closer to eastern than western.

The main characteristic, however, was cultural diversity. The mixture of the Greek, the Roman, the Eastern and Christianity resulted in a unique way of life, which was reflected in his art. From a certain point on, Latin was replaced by Greek.

In the educational aspect, the influence of the church was very noticeable. Part of his main task was to fight against Islam and, for this, he trained the Byzantine elites.

Art

The inhabitants of the Byzantine Empire attached great importance to the development of art. From the 4th century on, and with its epicenter in Constantinople, there was a great artistic explosion.

Most of the art that was made had religious roots. In fact, the central theme was the image of Christ, very represented in the Pantocrator.

The production of icons and mosaics stood out, as well as the impressive architectural works that marked the entire territory. Among these were Santa Sofia, Santa Irene or the Church of San Sergio and Baco, which is still known today by the nickname of the little Santa Sofia.

Economy

The economy of the Byzantine Empire remained for almost its entire existence under state control. The court lived in great luxury and part of the money collected from taxes was spent on maintaining a standard of living.

The army also needed a very large budget, as did the administrative apparatus.

farming

One of the characteristics of the economy during the Middle Ages was the primacy of agriculture. Byzantium was no exception, although it also took advantage of other factors.

Most of the production lands in the Empire were in the hands of the nobility and clergy. Sometimes, when lands came from military conquests, it was the army chiefs who received their property as payment.

They were large estates, worked by serfs. Only small rural landowners and villagers, belonging to the poor layers of society, were out of the norm.

The taxes to which they were subjected made the crops were only for survival and, many times, they had to pay large amounts to the lords to protect them.

Industry

In Byzantium there was an industry based on manufactures that, in some sectors, occupied many citizens. This was a big difference with the rest of Europe, in which small union workshops prevailed.

Although these types of workshops were also frequent in Byzantium, the textile sector had a more developed industrial structure. The main material used was silk, originally brought from the East.

In the 6th century, monks discovered how to produce silk themselves, and the Empire took the opportunity to establish production centers with many employees. Trade in products made from this material was an important source of income for the state.

Commerce

Despite the importance of agriculture, in Byzantium there was another economic activity that generated much more wealth. The trade took advantage of the privileged geographical position of the capital and Anatolia, right on the axis between Europe and Asia. The Bosphorus Strait, between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, allowed access to the east and also to Russia.

In this way, it became the center of the three main routes that left the Mediterranean. The first, the Silk Road, which reached China through Persia, Samarkand and Bukhara.

The second was heading towards the Black Sea, reaching the Crimea and continuing towards Central Asia. The last, for its part, went from Alexandria (Egypt) to the Indian Ocean, passing through the Red Sea and India.

They normally traded in objects considered luxury, as well as raw materials. Among the former, ivory, Chinese silk, incense, caviar and amber stood out, and among the latter, wheat from Egypt and Syria.

Religion

Religion was of great importance in the Byzantine Empire, both as a legitimizer of the monarch's power and as a unifying element of the territory. This importance was reflected in the power exercised by the ecclesiastical hierarchy.

From the first moment, Christianity was implanted in the area with great force. So much so, that already in 451, at the Council of Chalcedon, four of the five patriarchates created were in the East. Only Rome obtained a headquarters outside of that region.

Over time, different political and doctrinal struggles were distancing the different Christian currents. Constantinople always claimed to be in religious orthodoxy and had some clashes with Rome.

Iconoclast movement

One of the greatest crises that the Orthodox Church experienced occurred between the years 730 and 797 and, later, in the first half of the 9th century. Two religious currents had a great confrontation over a doctrinal issue: the prohibition that the Bible makes to worship idols.

The iconoclasts made a literal interpretation of the mandate and maintained that the creation of icons should be prohibited. Today, you can see in areas of the old Empire, paintings and mosaics in which the saints have their faces erased by the action of supporters of that current.

For their part, the iconodules held the opposite opinion. It was not until the Council of Nicea, in 787, when the Church decided in favor of the existence of icons.

Eastern schism

If the former was an internal issue in the Empire, the Eastern Schism meant the definitive separation between the Eastern and Western Churches.

Several political disagreements and the interpretation of the scriptures, together with controversial figures such as that of the Patriarch Photius, led to the fact that, in the year 1054, Rome and Constantinople began to walk apart.

In the Empire this ended up assuming the creation of an authentic national Church. The Patriarch increased his power, bringing him almost to the level of the Emperor.

Architecture

In principle, the architecture developed in the Byzantine Empire began with clear influences from the Roman. A point of differentiation was the appearance of some elements from early Christianity.

It was, in most cases, a religious architecture, which is reflected in the impressive built basilicas.

characteristics

The main material used in the constructions was brick. To disguise the humility of this component, the exterior was usually covered with stone slabs, while the interior was full of mosaics.

Among the most important novelties is the use of the vault, especially the barrel vault. And, of course, the dome stands out, which gave the religious enclosures a great sense of spaciousness and height.

The most common plant was that of a Greek cross, with the aforementioned dome in the center. Nor should we forget the presence of the iconostases, where the characteristic painted icons were placed.

Stages

Historians divide the history of Byzantine architecture into three different stages. The first during the period of the Emperor Justinian. It is when some of the most representative buildings are erected, such as the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, that of Santa Irene and, above all, that of Santa Sofia, all of them in Constantinople.

The next stage, or Golden Age, as they are called, is located in the so-called Macedonian Renaissance. This occurred during the 11th, 10th and 11th centuries. The Basilica of San Marco in Venice is one of the best known examples of this period.

The last Golden Age began in 1261. It stands out for the expansion of Byzantine architecture to the north and west.

Drop

The decline of the Byzantine Empire began with the reign of the Palaiologos Emperors, beginning with Michael VIII in 1261.

The conquest of the city half a century earlier by the crusaders, theoretical allies, had marked a turning point after which it would not recover. When they managed to retake Constantinople, the economy was very deteriorated.

From the east, the Empire was attacked by the Ottomans, who conquered much of its territory. To the west, it lost the Balkan area and the Mediterranean escaped due to the strength of Venice.

Requests for help from Western countries to resist Turkish advances did not find a positive response. The condition they set was to reunify the Church, but the Orthodox did not accept.

Around the year 1400, the Byzantine Empire hardly consisted of two small territories separated from each other and from the capital Constantinople.

Taking of Constantinople

Pressure from the Ottomans reached its peak when Mehmed II laid siege to Constantinople. The siege lasted two months, but the city walls were no longer the insurmountable obstacle that they had been for nearly 1000 years.

On May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell to the attackers. The last Emperor, Constantine XI, died that same day in battle.

The Byzantine Empire gave way to the birth of the Ottoman and, for historians, at that time the Modern Age began leaving behind the Middle Ages.

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