MODERN AGE: CHARACTERISTICS, STAGES, FACTS, CHARACTERS - HISTORY - 2025

The Modern Age was a period in the history of humanity that ranges from the 15th to the 18th century. Historians point to the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, as the passage from the previous period, the Middle Ages, to the new, although there is also a historiographical trend that delays that beginning until the discovery of America, in 1492.

More consensus exists to signal its end. Although, at first, only three stages were considered to divide the story; Ancient, Middle and Modern Age, later a new one was added, the Contemporary Age, being the French Revolution, in 1789, the event indicated as a turning point.

Main changes from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age - Source: PODZOLMC

The main characteristic of the Modern Age, which encompasses almost all the others, is the changes in all areas that occurred in Europe and, by extension, in the rest of the world. From the scientific world to the political world, through religion or philosophy, they were affected by these changes, which would end up shaping the society of the time.

Among the most important events that took place during this stage are the discoveries of new lands by Europeans, the great technological advances caused by the scientific revolution or the Protestant Reformation.

Start

The concept of Modern Age appeared in the seventeenth century; when Christopher Cellarius, a German historian, proposed dividing history into three different ages: Ancient, Middle Ages, and Modern Ages.

The beginning of the Modern Age is the subject of discussion among experts. Most often mark it in the fall of Constantinople in 1543, which ended the Eastern Roman Empire.

Other currents, instead, prefer to place this beginning in 1492, the date of the discovery of America. Finally, another group, smaller, delays the date until 1517, when Luther began the Protestant reform.

Regarding the geographical scope, the Modern Age developed almost completely in Europe. However, it is a time when important discoveries of new lands took place, so its influence reached continents such as America or Asia.

Middle Ages

The historical period prior to the Modern Age was the Middle Ages. This spanned from the 5th to the 15th century, beginning with the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

However, the transition from one age to another developed gradually. Thus, at the beginning of the 15th century, some modern aspects were already present. Likewise, during the Modern Age some clearly medieval features were still maintained.

From feudalism to the states

During the latter part of the Middle Ages, Europe was divided between a large number of small territories. It was a clearly feudal structure, with noble dominating those lands.

However, throughout the Middle Ages it was already possible to glimpse that this system was evolving. The feudal lords were losing power, while that of the kings was reinforced. At the same time, a feeling of national belonging began to appear among its inhabitants.

At the same time, a new social class appeared, the bourgeoisie. This, formed by merchants and artisans, were gaining in influence, first economically and, later, politically.

All this process culminated with the arrival of the Modern Age, with the consolidation of the absolutist states against the feudal ones.

Changes in the social, economic and cultural

Despite the importance of the political changes, many authors consider that the most radical transformations occurred in the social, cultural and economic spheres.

During the Middle Ages, as noted, European society was structured according to feudal canons. The king at the top, the nobles and the clergy second, and lastly the peasants, many tied to the land and their lords.

However, already during the last medieval period, the countryside lost importance compared to the city, something that favored the emergence of the bourgeoisie. This was also reflected in the economy, with agriculture losing some of its importance to activities such as commerce or industry.

Another sector that had begun to lose some influence during the end of the Middle Ages was the clergy. Although the Catholic Church still retained much power, the rise of the Renaissance in the fourteenth century began to place the human being at the center of the universe, weakening religious dogmas.

Taking of Constantinople

Most historians place the passage between the Middle Ages and the Modern Age in the capture of Constantinople in 1453. With the conquest of that city by the Turks, the history of the Byzantine Empire, also called the Eastern Roman Empire, ended..

That empire had been showing signs of decline since the end of the 14th century. Despite attempts by the West to help, pressure from the Ottomans made their downfall inevitable.

On the other hand, there are some authors who point out the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the American continent in 1492 as the beginning of the Modern Age.

Main characteristics of the Modern Age

The great transformations in all areas of society were the main characteristic of the Modern Age. Thus, the first modern states appeared on the European continent, which led to the centralization of power and the formation of absolute monarchies.

On the other hand, during this time parts of the world unknown to Europeans until then were discovered, explored and colonized. America was the clearest exponent of these events, although Asia and Africa also began to be places of interest for Europe to profit economically.

Finally, there was a break within Christianity, the most stable and important center of power for centuries. Economically, capitalist society made its appearance, with an important growth of commerce and industry.

Globalization

The Age of Discovery (also known as the Age of Exploration) has been mentioned as one of the possible starting points of the Modern Age. In the same way, this era is also recognized as the beginning of globalization, one of the main characteristics of the Modern Age.

The era of discoveries took place between the 15th and 18th centuries, having as main points of reference the arrival of Christopher Columbus in America (1492) and the Portuguese discoveries of the archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores, the coast of Africa and the discovery of the Indian sea route in 1498.

These trips and discoveries of new countries, territories and continents of which there was no knowledge or certainty of their existence, represented an important change in various areas such as commerce, culture, religion, etc.

An important consequence of the discoveries is to be found in colonization, carried out especially by Spain and Portugal first, and later by Great Britain and the Netherlands.

At the same time, I also create a new commercial need between continents. For example, spices became indispensable in European diets and cinnamon or pepper became a necessity.

This gastronomic exchange forced the development of new conservation techniques due to long trips around the world.

Renaissance humanism

Humanism was a European intellectual, philosophical, and cultural movement started in Italy and then expanded through Western Europe between the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. In this it sought to retake the models of Classical Antiquity and Greco-Roman humanism.

This movement emerged as a response against the doctrine of utilitarianism. Humanists sought to create citizens who were capable of expressing themselves, orally and in writing, eloquently and clearly, but still engaging in the civic life of their communities and persuading others to take virtuous and prudent actions.

To fulfill this ideal, he made use of the study of the "Studia humanitatis", which today we know as the humanities, among these: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy.

The "Studia humanitatis" excluded logic from their study, and made poetry (a sequel to grammar and rhetoric) the most important area of ​​study.

This emphasis on the study of poetry and the quality of oral and written expression, above logic and practicality, represents an illustration of the ideals of change and progress of the Modern Age and the longing for the classical of the Renaissance.

Mercantilism

Mercantilism was the dominant economic school in the Modern Age, from the 16th to the 18th centuries. It brought with it the first signs of significant government intervention and control over the economy.

The discovery of spices, silk, and other rare products in Europe created new needs and opportunities for trade. Being satisfied during the Age of Discovery, European powers created huge new networks of international trade.

Nations also found new sources of wealth, and new economic theories and practices were created to deal with these.

Due to the national interest to compete, nations sought to increase their power based on colonial empires. In addition, this commercial revolution represented a growth of interests other than manufacturing, such as banking and investment.

Geography and politics

The Modern Age was accompanied by great geographical discoveries. The arrival of Columbus to America meant that commercial and political networks expanded, something that also happened in Africa and Asia.

During this time, in addition, great empires developed, with important colonial possessions. In the early part of the Modern Age, the Spanish and Portuguese empires stood out. Starting in the 17th century, it was the British and the Dutch who gained more power.

Within the European continent, modern states emerged, ruled by an absolute monarchy with religious justification. Another characteristic associated with the above was the continuous wars between the different countries. The most important was the Thirty Years' War.

Economy and society

The economy of the Modern Age was marked by the development of capitalism. Discoveries of new lands and scientific and commercial advances made capital increasingly important. This made the appearance of mercantilism, a characteristic system during the seventeenth century.

Despite this economic change, a good part of society did not have enough to survive. This, together with the Industrial Revolution, ideological changes and other factors, were the cause of the revolutions that would occur at the end of this historical stage.

Another effect of the change in the economic system was the advancement and strengthening of the bourgeoisie. This played a fundamental role in the aforementioned revolutions. The bourgeoisie had gradually become a very important economic force, without this being translated into the acquisition of political power.

Religion

Excerpt from the 95 theses of Martin Luther

One of the events that marked the Modern Age was the break that occurred in the Western Christian world. The Protestant Reformation, which occurred in the 16th century, led to the emergence of new branches of Christianity, outside the sphere of power of the papacy of Rome.

It was Martin Luther who gave a vision of the Catholic religion much more in line with the ideals of the Modern Age. Having pointed out, when he refused to submit to the church, that the only source of authority was the holy scriptures.

This divided Europeans religiously into two parts. The Protestants had more influence in the Nordic and Anglo-Saxon countries, without forgetting Central Europe. The Catholics, for their part, were more powerful in the south of the continent. The most immediate consequence was the rise of intolerance, including several wars of religion.

Another very important characteristic element of the Modern Age was the beginning of the separation between the Church and the State. The ancient kingdoms evolved into nation-states, with strictly political and non-religious laws and moral codes.

Philosophy and thought

Another of the fundamental characteristics of the Modern Age was the change in the way of seeing the world. The philosophers and thinkers of this time stopped following the religious dogmas so present in the Middle Ages and began to put the human being as a central element of society.

In this way, different currents of thought appeared, such as humanism or rationalism. All of these led to the Enlightenment, a philosophy that would give rise to the Declaration of Human Rights and other social advances.

In this period, moreover, philosophy was closely related to science. Scientists also began their own change, based on empirical research and discussing some precepts marked by religion.

Art

Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci

The growth of the arts during the Modern Age was one of the most striking features of the period. A large number of artistic movements appeared, beginning with the revival of classicism carried out by the Renaissance. Besides, other currents stood out, such as the baroque and the rococo.

The influence of these styles reached not only architecture, sculpture or painting, but also theater, literature or music. In general, they all rejected the old medieval motivations and bet on the execution of works that reflected faith in the human being.

Violence

The Modern Age, as has been pointed out, represented a change that placed the human being at the center of society. However, paradoxically, it was also a period in which violent episodes occurred, with political and religious wars and persecutions of minorities.

Stages

Anglo-Saxon historians usually divide the Modern Age into two different stages. The first, called High Modern Age, would reach the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, which ended the Thirty Years' War.

The second, for its part, receives the name of Low Modern Age, and would cover until the Revolution towards the end of the 18th century.

However, this division is merely theoretical. In reality, most experts, outside the Anglo-Saxon world, tend to mark the stages by century.

XV century

The 15th century is somewhere between the Middle Ages and the Modern. Its beginnings were marked by the end of the plague epidemic. Feudal society began to crumble due to a serious economic crisis and the bourgeoisie was consolidated as a social class. The bourgeoisie were the ones who started the transition to capitalism.

On the other hand, the kings were accumulating more power at the expense of the nobility and the clergy. This caused a change in the European political structure, with the emergence of stronger states, with absolutist governments. These monarchies justify their powers through religion, declaring that royal power emanates from God.

Although the first nationalist sentiments appeared in this century, there were some countries that failed to unify politically. The two most important were Italy and Germany.

The 15th century is also considered the century of inventions and explorations. The Italian Renaissance revolutionized art in many respects, which was accompanied by a philosophical shift.

Century XVI

The 16th century was marked, mainly, by two factors: the Reformation and the new trade routes.

The first was a reform that affected the Christian religion in Western Europe. It was started by Martin Luther, who wanted to protest the corruption of the Church, as well as the use of strategies to increase its wealth that she considered inappropriate, such as indulgences.

Luther obtained great support in several countries, beginning the Protestant Reformation. This would end up dividing Christianity in two.

The Catholic Church tried to fight the Reformation. For this, the Council of Trent decreed a series of measures, beginning the counter-reform, On the other hand, the exploitation of the colonies favored the appearance of an economic theory called mercantilism. This established that it was more beneficial for countries to increase the import of goods and reduce exports.

It was, in general terms, to protect local production from foreign competition. In addition, it reinforced the idea of ​​accumulation of wealth, precious metals and valuable resources.

XVII century

The seventeenth century had very negative aspects for Europe. Harvests were bad for years due to weather and soil deterioration. This, together with the appearance of the plague, caused a great increase in mortality and times of famine.

The Spanish power began to crumble, in part due to the lower performance of metal mining in its American colonies. France and England took over as great continental powers. Similarly, the English, with a large fleet, began to trade all over the world

On the other hand, feudal society entered its last stage of crisis, with feudal lords unable to contain increasingly impoverished peasants.

The system that replaced feudalism were absolute monarchies. The best exponent was in France, with the figure of Louis XIV and his well-known phrase "I am the State."

Similarly, the continent was immersed in the 30 Years War, caused by religious issues. The conflict ended with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia and with the destruction of much of Germany.

Century XVIII

This century was characterized by the appearance of a current of thought that would change politics, society and the economy: the Enlightenment. It is a philosophy that perfectly sums up the Modern Age. Its authors affirm that all human beings are born equal, they maintain the primacy of reason and freedom over dogmatisms.

In the political sphere, the Enlightenment was opposed to absolutism, since it was based on the primacy of the king over the rest of the citizens. The response of the monarchs was, in some countries, to tweak the system a little, giving rise to the so-called enlightened despotism.

However, this was not enough to stop the effects of the Enlightenment. Thus, in the United States, after achieving its independence, they promulgated a Constitution based on enlightened principles. Somewhat later, the French Revolution and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens would mark the end of the Modern Age and the entry into the Contemporary Age.

Within the economic sphere another great transformation took place. The Industrial Revolution changed the way of production, introduced many new inventions and led to the emergence of the labor movement.

Important events

The events that occurred in the Modern Age laid the foundations of the contemporary world. At this time capitalism was established as a global economic system, the scientific revolution developed and the Enlightenment appeared.

In other respects, Europe saw Christianity split in two after the Protestant Reformation. This, apart from the reaction of the Church, provoked some wars of religion.

Renaissance

Although it had already started in the previous century, it was in the 15th century that a new cultural movement became stronger. It was the Renaissance, characterized by recovering classical thought.

This movement appeared in Italy, still divided into city-states. These had been enriched by trade and, in addition, they received many Byzantine thinkers after the fall of Constantinople.

Apart from the importance of the Renaissance within the art world, this movement was the inspirer of a new philosophy, humanism. This was based on placing the human being at the center of thought, ending the previous theocentric philosophy.

Along with this, humanists defended the importance of reason to find the truth, something that contributed to great scientific advances.

Scientific revolution

Nicolaus Copernicus

The emergence of a philosophy that extolled reason over religion was one of the factors that drove the scientific revolution, along with the discoveries of new lands and the improvement of research instruments.

In the Modern Age, characters like Erasmus, Copernicus, Galileo or Kepler contributed numerous advances, each one in their field. It was the research of one of them, Nicolás Copernicus, which, according to historians, marked the beginning of the scientific revolution.

This Polish astronomer, by observing the planets, defended the heliocentric theory with data, which stated that it is the planets that revolve around the sun. Aside from the scientific importance, this contradicted the religious view that placed the Earth as the center of the universe.

After Copernicus, many other researchers changed the vision of the world that existed to date. The most important, leaving aside the discoveries themselves, was that they implemented a new way of doing science, based on experimentation and direct critical observation.

An invention from the previous century, the movable type printing press, made it easy for all of this knowledge to spread rapidly, as well as allowing more people to access it.

Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther - Source: Attributed to Lucas Cranach the Younger

The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that ended up dividing Christian Europe into two parts. This reform began in Germany in the 16th century. Symbolically, the movement is considered to have started when Luther nailed a document of his own making to the doors of the Wittenberg church.

In that document, called The 95 Theses, Luther explained the reforms that, according to him, the Church needed. The most important were the cuts to the religious and political power of the papacy, as well as ending the commercialism into which the institution had fallen.

In the religious sphere, they declared that Christians did not need the figure of any intermediary to understand the teachings of the Bible or to save themselves.

Protestantism, with its Anglican and Calvinist variants, spread across part of the continent, causing a schism within European Christianity. This caused, among other things, an increase in religious intolerance and several wars between the believers of each of the options.

Absolutism

Feudalism, the prevailing political, economic and social system in the Middle Ages was replaced by absolutism. This appeared on the continent in the 16th and 17th centuries and remained in force until the 18th century.

This new form of organization was characterized by the concentration of all powers in the hands of the king. The nobles, who had been the feudal lords, continue to maintain a certain status, but no longer being able to exercise real power in the State.

The theoretical bases of this system were established by jurists, especially by those who had studied at the universities of Bologna, Salamanca and Paris. The absolute power of the king was justified by religion. It was God who granted those prerogatives to the monarch, who became the only one who could legislate.

First bourgeois revolutions

Source: Eugène Delacroix, via Wikimedia Commons

The social movements of the Modern Age, especially those related to the Protestant Reformation, are considered by some historians as precursors of the bourgeois revolutions that would take place later.

In Flanders, for example, there was a revolt against Spanish rule that combined the nationalist with the religious component, to which eminently social factors were added.

The English Revolution was another example of the growing drive of the bourgeoisie. Although it was of an economic nature, it meant a great social change, with the rise of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie.

Industrial Revolution

As noted above, the Industrial Revolution was one of the most important events of the Modern Age. This is a period in which the industrialization of countries took place, starting with England.

This revolution began at the end of the 18th century and was one of the causes of the entry into the Contemporary Age.

During this revolution, agriculture lost importance to industry. However, the mechanization characteristic of this period also reached the countryside, causing crops to increase and, on the other hand, many peasants lost their jobs.

The advances of the Industrial Revolution also gave rise to new modes of transport, such as steamships or trains.

The effects of these changes were not only limited to the economy. Working conditions were totally transformed, appearing the labor movement as a defense against the abuses of the owners of the industry.

30 years war

The most important warlike conflict that occurred during the Modern Age was the Thirty Years' War. This war began in 1648, in Bohemia (Holy Roman Empire) and did not end until 1648, with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia.

Although the conflict began as an internal confrontation within the Holy Empire, it ended up becoming an international war between Catholics and Protestants. With this, several European powers ended up participating, such as Spain and the Netherlands.

However, it is not only a religious war, but also represents a political and economic conflict.

Declaration of independence of the United States

English settlers settled in parts of North America rose up against England in search of independence.

At first, the uprising had an economic motivation, due to the increase in taxes on the colony.

In 1774, the leaders of the colonists decided to cut all connection with England. The British monarch accused them of rebellion. The following year, the confrontations between the English troops and the insurgents began.

Two years later, the Congress of Philadelphia passed the Declaration of Independence of the United States. The Constitution approved later collected many of the approaches defended by the Enlightenment and served as inspiration for those promulgated in other countries.

Prominent figures

In an era marked by scientific, religious and philosophical innovation, there were countless characters who starred in these advances. Among the best known, scientists like Copernicus, explorers like Christopher Columbus or philosophers like the illustrated ones.

Christopher Columbus

On October 12, 1492, Christopher Columbus reached the lands of a new continent: America. Sponsored by the Spanish crown, the navigator was looking for a new way to reach Asia and, thus, favor the Hispanic trade routes.

With this discovery, with its lights and shadows, the world changed forever. The Spanish maintained their dominance in the new continent for three centuries, establishing themselves as one of the most important empires of the moment.

Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolas Copernicus - Source: UnknownDeutsch: UnbekanntEnglish: UnknownPolski: Nieznany

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) was a Polish mathematician and astronomer, known for presenting a heliocentric model of the solar system. This proposes that the Sun, and not the Earth, is the center of the universe.

Although his ideas contained some errors, the publication of his work On the revolutions of the celestial spheres (1543) is considered the beginning of the scientific revolution. His work had a great influence on those of Kepler, Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, and many other scientists.

Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei - Source: Domenico Tintoretto

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist, mathematician, and professor whose work contains observations that formed the basis of modern astronomy and physics. Likewise, he improved the design of the telescopes, which allowed him to confirm the heliocentric model of Nicolás Copernicus.

In addition to his discoveries, the importance of Galileo goes much further. The methods he used became fundamental to modern science. He insisted that nature had to be described in the language of mathematics, thereby influencing the shift from a verbal and qualitative description to a quantitative one.

Martin Luther

The initiator of the Protestant Reformation was born in 1483. His family was very humble and only the help of a patron allowed him to enter a monastery and become a priest.

In 1510, Luther traveled to Rome, an event that changed his life. There, he was disillusioned by the luxury in which the clergy lived. Returning home, he studied theology and began teaching at the University of Wittenberg.

Luther wrote a document with 95 theses and nailed it to the doors of the cathedral in 1517. In the letter he detailed the changes that he considered fundamental for the Church, discussing the power he accumulated and his eagerness to accumulate wealth.

From that moment the Protestant Reformation began, which divided Christian Europe in two.

The illustrated

There were many philosophers who embraced the ideas of the Enlightenment. One of the most influential was John Locke, an English author who is considered the father of empiricism and political liberalism.

Voltaire was another of the most important thinkers of this current. The French was a defender of the parliamentary system and advocated using it in his native country. In addition, he was in favor of creating a new religion based on reason.

For his part, Jean-Jacques Rousseau defended education as a tool to recover the natural goodness of the human being. One of the best known phrases of this movement is his work: "Man is good by nature."

Finally, Montesquieu cannot be absent from the list of the most influential enlightened philosophers. His fundamental contribution was his theory on the division of powers. The author advocated the existence of three independent powers: executive, legislative and judicial power.

The separation of powers advocated by Montesquieu implied an end to absolutism, which concentrated them all in a single person.

Adam smith

During the Modern Age the economic system went through several stages. One of the models born during that stage was mercantilism, which required the State to regulate the economy. This was contrary to the thinking of many enlightened people, who believed in free economic circulation.

This market freedom without state intervention ended up giving a name to a new economic doctrine: liberalism. Its most important exponent was Adam Smith, in his work The Wealth of Nations.

End of the Modern Age

Contrary to what happens with the date of its beginning, there is no discussion about the end of the Modern Age. Thus, the event that determined its end and the beginning of the Contemporary Age was the French Revolution.

French Revolution

In 1789, the French ended the absolutist regime of Louis XVI. The French Revolution was not only a change of government or political system, but it represented the beginning of the end of the Old Regime.

The poverty of the majority of citizens, the power exercised by the clergy and nobility, and the new ideas of equality generated by the Enlightenment were three of the factors that led to the outbreak of the Revolution. After her triumph, she went through different stages, more or less violent.

Finally, the monarch was executed and a republic was established. Napoleon Bonaparte's coup ended that regime, but not with the ideas of the revolution: Equality, Liberty and Fraternity.

Napoleon managed to occupy a large part of the continent militarily. Although he subdued countries by force, one of his goals was to bring revolutionary ideas to all of Europe.

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