AGE OF COPPER: CHARACTERISTICS, TOOLS AND INVENTIONS - HISTORY - 2025

The Copper or Chalcolithic Age was the first stage of the so-called Metal Age. Also called Eneolithic, its main characteristic was that humans began to use metals, copper in this case, to make tools. This period began around 6,000 BC. C and ended about 4,000 BC. C.

This chronology does not have the consensus of the entire scientific community. On the one hand, humans began to use copper about 3,000 years earlier. However, he did it cold, without using metallurgy. For this reason, experts consider that this is part of the Neolithic.

Metallurgical expansion - Source: Metallurgical diffusion.svg under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International license

The other factor that makes it difficult to date the Chalcolithic is geographical. The characteristics of the period only occurred in Europe, the Middle East and Egypt. It is considered, therefore, that the rest of Africa and America did not go through this stage, but that their evolution was different.

In general terms, anthropologists affirm that this was a transitional stage between the primacy of stone and the appearance of more resistant metals, such as bronze. In addition, these experts give more importance to the evolution of agricultural techniques and the development of cities than to the use of copper itself.

characteristics

Los Millares, archaeological site from the Copper Age. Jose Mª Yuste, from photography (Tuor123). Miguel Salvatierra Cuenca, author of the illustration

Until now, the oldest evidences of the existence of metallurgy have been found in Anatolia and Mesopotamia. These remains have been dated to 6,000 BC. C, somewhat older than those found in the Balkan area.

From these parts of the planet, the use of metallurgy spread throughout Europe and the Middle East and, by 3 000 BC. C, was already in common use in most human settlements.

The first metal used by humans was copper. This was very easy to obtain, since it was abundant and mining techniques were not necessary to obtain it. The first uses were prior to the beginning of the Copper Age, when humans of the time modeled the material cold.

In addition to the use of this material, the Chalcolithic was characterized by continuing with the social, political and economic evolution that had begun in the Neolithic.

the beginning

According to the archaeological remains found, experts believe that the first uses of copper occurred around 9,500 BC. The dating is based on the objects that appeared in Iraq during an archaeological excavation. Those were manufactured in a very rudimentary way, without using metallurgical techniques.

It would not be until about 3,500 years later when humans began to melt copper in order to work it more efficiently. The first remains showing this new technology were found in Anatolia (in present-day Turkey), Iraq, and Iran.

Social organization

Chalcolithic society continued to evolve just as it had during the Neolithic. Metallurgy was only one of the factors that contributed to the increase in its complexity and the appearance of power structures within it.

Making objects with copper required certain skills and not all of them were capable of doing the job. This contributed to accentuate the division of labor that had already begun in the previous period.

On the other hand, this metal was used in most occasions to make ornaments, such as rings, bracelets or necklaces. Very soon, the possession of these objects was associated with the classes that were accumulating wealth and power.

This social stratification, very visible in the burials, gave rise to the appearance of three different groups within these societies. At the top of the pyramid were the most economically and politically powerful, who when they died were buried with numerous objects made of copper.

In a second step the specialized artisans were located. Behind them, at the bottom of the social scale, were the peasants and farmers.

Population growth

Tomb in the necropolis of Varna (Bulgaria), dating from 4600 BC with the oldest gold jewelry in the world. I, Yelkrokoyade

The improvement of agricultural and livestock techniques allowed a real population explosion to take place. The populations, therefore, began to grow in size and in number of inhabitants.

This growth was especially notable in the Mediterranean area. The evolution of the populations gave rise to the appearance of the first urban planning. Similarly, the city began to reflect social stratification.

Finally, according to historians, these societies were the origin of what they call proto-states.

Economic aspect

The economy of the Copper Age was very similar to that of the previous period, the Neolithic. Agriculture and livestock continued to be the economic base, while trade increased significantly.

On the other hand, new inventions allowed crops to improve. In this regard, they highlighted the appearance of the plow and of new irrigation techniques that allowed expanding the arable land.

During the Chalcolithic, the change in the productive paradigm took hold. In earlier times, most of what was produced was destined for domestic consumption, something that changed thanks to the better harvests. These caused a social class to begin to accumulate surpluses and, therefore, wealth.

Agricultural and livestock improvements

As has been noted, during the Copper Age new inventions and techniques appeared that made it possible to improve agricultural and livestock activities.

On the one hand, ditches began to be built that allowed the water to be brought from the rivers to the fields. This, on the one hand, led to higher harvests and, on the other, increased the arable area.

In the field of agriculture, the most important novelty was the domestication of more animal species. It was no longer simply livestock intended for food, but also animals, such as donkeys or oxen, which served to facilitate the work of the peasants.

Religion

There is not much data on the religious beliefs of Chalcolithic humans. It is known that they carried out ceremonies in the open air in which possibly offerings were made.

The megalithic constructions of the time, such as the menhirs, could have had religious purposes. Some authors believe that it was where funeral rites were performed, while others claim that they were the seat of ceremonies in which the sun was worshiped.

On the other hand, some theories indicate that the appearance of metallurgy could change some of the beliefs of human beings. According to this hypothesis, this technology would be the cause of the appearance of new matter-modifying divinities.

Finally, the incipient social hierarchy was also reflected in the pantheon of the Copper Age. The gods began to be divided according to their imports and went from being feminine (the Mother-Goddess) to masculine and with a warrior character.

Art

One of the fields in which the change of era was most noticeable was in art. In addition to the paintings that continued to be made, an entire industry dedicated to the decoration of objects appeared. They used to be geometric themes, similar to a chessboard.

One of the most important examples of Copper Age art is bell-shaped vases, named for their inverted bell shape. These containers have been found in excavations carried out throughout Europe.

Likewise, the production of funerary elements, both ceramic and metal, stood out. Finally, in some areas of the European continent anthropomorphic sculptures were also made.

Tools and inventions

Reconstruction of copper ax. Bullenwächter

Although it was the use of copper that marked the change in the historical era, in reality this metal was rarely used when making tools. In most cases, Chalcolithic men still preferred stone as their raw material.

Among the utensils that were made with copper were some small weapons, such as daggers or arrowheads. In addition, the metal was used to make tools such as chisels or punches.

Metallurgy

Bowl of Los Millares. Jose-Manuel Benito Alvarez

The most important invention of the Copper Age was metallurgy. Most likely, its appearance was due to some accident, perhaps when a piece of copper fell into the fire. Other authors believe that it could have been a trial and error process based on what was done with ceramics.

What is known is that metallurgy appeared at different times depending on the part of the world. Thus, in the Middle East and in the Balkans it has been detected that this technology emerged very early, but in most of Africa or America its use took a long time.

Once the human being mastered the process of smelting this metal, he could begin to make some tools and ornaments with it. However, flint continued to be an important material, especially for making some types of weapons and farm implements.

Bell shaped pottery

This type of ceramic began to be made in the Iberian Peninsula and continued to be made well into the Bronze Age. It was a type of bell-shaped vessels that were used in celebrations and burials of the upper class.

Irrigation techniques

One of the most important advances in this period was the introduction of irrigation techniques. Its complexity and effectiveness depended on the geographic area, but overall it represented a great improvement for agriculture.

The most common was that ditches and pipes were built to carry the water from its source to the fields. This not only expanded the arable area, but also allowed the introduction of some innovative products that, over time, would become characteristic of the Mediterranean area, such as the olive tree and the vine.

These last foods began to be considered as almost luxury goods. For this reason, consumers used to come from the ruling class. In addition, they soon became one of the most valued products when it came to trading.

Plow

The great invention of the Chalcolithic was also related to agriculture: the plow. Despite its apparent simplicity, its introduction was a breakthrough for humans of the time.

This farm implement appeared in Mesopotamia around 5,000 BC. C and from there it spread to the rest of Asia and the European continent. Thanks to its use, the peasants of the time were able to better prepare the farmland and increase the harvests, which led to more surpluses being produced.

Copper Age in Europe

Historians divide the Europe of the Copper Age into two different zones. Chronologically, where metallurgy first arrived was the Balkans, where the first proto-states appeared.

The second of these areas is Western Europe. There, the Copper Age began around 2,500 BC. C, when metallurgical techniques came from possibly the Aegean Sea area.

The Balkans in the IV millennium BC. C.

Until a few decades ago, the most widely accepted theory was that metallurgy had reached the Aegean Sea from Anatolia. Historians thought that this technology came from Troy I and that its first uses in the Balkans occurred in 3000 BC. C.

However, modern carbon-14 dating techniques have shown that the appearance of metallurgy in this area occurred about 1000 years earlier than previously thought.

In this way, today it is believed that this technology was the cause of the creation of the first civilization in Europe, located in the Danube area and dated to 4000 BC. C.

The most important populations in that area were Vinça, Gumelnitsa, Salcuta, Cucuteni and Tiszapolgar, considered by historians as proto-states. They were localities with a very complex and organized social structure and they even began to develop types of writing.

Slope

After having lived through a time of great splendor, the Balkan populations began to decline. Before long, their metal industry was down 90% and they even lost the fledgling writing methods they had come up with.

Although the cause of this decline is not known, some authors suggest that it could be due to invasions by other peoples from the east. One of the evidence that these experts point to is the appearance of ceramics with typically oriental decoration in the area.

The aegean

Located between Anatolia and Greece, the Aegean area was another of the areas of Europe that most developed during the Copper Age.

The transformations began to take place at the end of the IV millennium BC. It was then when metallurgy applied to copper appeared in the area. The demography increased and the contacts between the populations of the islands and those of the coasts of the continent increased.

The settlements began to grow and in some of them defensive walls were erected. Along with this process, there was also an increase in social hierarchy.

At first, these walled towns were not very large, although they soon began to grow. Among the most important were Troy I, Dimini, Termi or Galandrini.

All these villages created a network to exchange knowledge and products. These routes connected the Cyclades, the Peloponnese, Attica, Crete, Rhodes and Anatolia to trade in objects made of stone or metal.

malt

The island of Malta, in the middle of the Mediterranean, developed during the Copper Age at a rate similar to that of the Aegean Sea. The main contribution of its inhabitants was that they raised the first temples in the world built with stone.

Very little is known about the island's settlements, but remains have been found that reveal what those sanctuaries were like. According to historians, its use was both ceremonial and funerary. In addition, each of them had been built by a prominent family in the area, thus they were also a symbol of their power.

The temples were built following a very similar pattern, although there are differences in their complexity. Thus, they consisted of a central corridor that led to various oval rooms. Its general shape resembles that of a clover.

Another prominent building that has been found on the island has been a hypogeum (an underground structure used for burials) called Hal Saflieni. Its dimensions reach 500 square meters, enough to house around 7000 bodies.

Iberian Peninsula

The other major focus of human development in Europe during the Chalcolithic was just across the Mediterranean, on the Iberian Peninsula. In present-day Spain, two cultures appeared that reached great importance, although they did not become proto-states as happened in the Balkans.

Among the main characteristics of these cultures was the fortification of their settlements. They were also quite large populations, especially in the case of Los Millares and Zambujal.

Apart from these large settlements, in the current Spanish regions of Andalusia and Extremadura, as well as in the Alentejo and the Portuguese Algarve, small fortified towns also arose. One of the common elements was the presence of dolmens and artificial caves.

South of France

Like the rest of the important places of the Chalcolithic in Europe, the French settlements were in the south, near the Mediterranean.

This French area had a large population, although instead of living in large urban centers they did so in small towns. The houses were built with stone and many localities were protected with walls.

The latter seems to be a consequence of the armed conflicts in the area. Skeletons with arrowheads have appeared in various excavations, as well as skulls that have undergone trepanation.

On the other hand, the French Midi was an important trading point, especially for flint and obsidian. Similarly, there were several areas rich in copper.

Age of copper in Africa

The vast majority of the African continent did not go through the Copper Age. For example, throughout sub-Saharan Africa no evidence of its use has been found.

The cause pointed out by historians is that the population did not cease to be semi-nomadic or to have an economic based on gathering and hunting, not even during the Neolithic. At that time, Africans opted for livestock over agriculture.

The changes associated with the Copper Age did not take place in the north of the continent either. There was only one exception, Egypt, which had more relations with the peoples of the Middle East and the Aegean than with the rest of the African territories.

Egypt

Within the periodization of the history of Egypt, the Copper Age would include from the predynastic period to the Pharaonic.

In this North African country, some of the first objects made with native copper have been found cold. Experts have dated them to the V millennium, even within the Neolithic.

Later, as of 4,000 BC. C, a culture called Nagada appeared in the Nile Valley. This already used metallurgy, although it still preferred to make its tools with stone. As in the Balkans, this culture is considered a proto-state by anthropologists.

Apart from the knowledge of metallurgy, the Nagada culture was characterized by the introduction of irrigation, as well as by the construction of an immense necropolis in which clear features of social stratification appear.

It is also known that they developed a very important cottage industry. In addition to copper, artisans used gold and silver to make their works.

Both the art and the religion of that time are considered as the antecedents of the Egypt of the pharaohs.

Copper Age in the Middle East

The Middle East was one of the areas of the planet in which the Copper Age reached its greatest splendor. It was there, in Anatolia, where the human being began to melt this metal to make tools or ornaments, although without ceasing to use the stone.

The oldest evidences of the use of metallurgy have appeared in Çatalhöyük and in Hacilar. Needles, some ornaments and punches have been found in these sites.

Chronologically, the Chalcolithic in the Near East spanned from 4 500 BC. C and 3 500 a. Historians have divided this period into several stages: phases III and IV of the Ubaid Period and the Uruk Period, although the latter two coincided in time.

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia ("between two rivers") is a region of the Near East located between the Tigris and the Euphrates. Its favorable environmental conditions led to it being there where agriculture and livestock first appeared during the Neolithic. For that reason, it is not surprising that it was also a landmark in the Copper Age.

The inhabitants of the area incorporated irrigation systems to bring water from the rivers to the fields. In addition, the Euphrates had a sufficient flow to be navigable, something that promoted trade and cultural and technological exchange.

Already from 5 000 a. C, humans in this region began to make their tools with copper, although at that time they worked it cold. Likewise, a new type of pottery appeared that used technologies such as the lathe or the wheel.

The fertility of their fields allowed crops such as barley or wheat to be introduced and, in addition, they were pioneers in domesticating animals such as goats or lambs.

Sedentary and trade

Tell Halaf was the most important culture in the area. His domains ranged from the north of present-day Syria to the most Mediterranean coast, passing through lands that bordered the Tigris and the Euphrates.

In the archaeological sites of this culture, evidence has been found that they used very advanced kilns for the time. This allowed them to have a metallurgical industry superior to that of other towns.

In addition, it is known that they developed an important commercial activity with Anatolia and the Persian Gulf.

Trade was precisely the factor that drove sedentarism in the region. Despite the aforementioned good environmental conditions, the area had a significant deficit of raw materials. There it was difficult to find wood or metal and the trade allowed them to be acquired elsewhere.

From that moment on, their society developed at great speed. They were pioneers in developing urban planning and the growth of their populations led to increasingly complex social structures. In a few centuries, these advances led to the emergence of the world's first great civilizations.

Copper Age in America

The differences between the history of America and those of the other continents has led experts to develop a different periodization system. For this reason, it is difficult to point out which stage could correspond to the Bronze Age.

According to the remains found, in present-day Bolivia and Peru copper was already melting at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Five hundred years later, they began to make alloys with gold and silver.

The smelting of metals used to be destined to make objects for rituals or to indicate the social position of their owners. On the other hand, there are very few samples of tools made with this material.

This presence of metallurgy does not mean that it had the same importance as in Europe and the Middle East. In America, metals were used to make weapons and ornaments, but they did not make any kind of difference in social and military development.

Periodization of American history

As has been commented, the historical periods in which America has been divided are different from the European ones. Thus, American Prehistory would span from the moment when human beings arrived on the continent (a date that is still being debated) until the appearance of the first civilizations on the continent.

In this way, Prehistory and all its subdivisions (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and the Metal Age) would roughly correspond to the Paleoindian and Pre-Clovis periods.

Development of metallurgy

Although the metallurgy of metals such as copper or gold was known in the continent, historians consider that it was not an important factor in pre-Columbian economic systems.

Already in 4,000 BC. C, the inhabitants of some areas of America, such as the Great Lakes, knew and worked with native copper. At that time metallurgical techniques were not used, but the metal was cold beaten until it acquired the desired shape. According to the remains found, copper was used to make arrowheads.

Metallurgy, according to the evidence found up to this moment, was born at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. C. The first place where this technology was implanted was in the highlands between Peru and Bolivia.

First great metallurgical culture

The first great metallurgical culture in America was that of Chavin, in Huantar, about 800 BC. The most used metal was gold, with which they made statuettes and other objects in the form of plates.

Some centuries later, on the IV a. C, the Moche culture began to use copper and silver to make utensils. Their mastery of metallurgy allowed them to introduce techniques such as hot embossing, embedding gems, and bathing the pieces in silver and gold.

Intermediate zone

In addition to the Andes, metallurgy also gained importance in the so-called Intermediate Zone, an area located between Colombia and Ecuador.

According to historians, this area was characterized by hosting the best experts in making alloys with metal: the Muiscas.

To carry out their work, the Muiscas used a mixture of gold, silver and copper, although their most important creation was an alloy called tumbaga that mixed only copper and gold.

Mixtec culture

The long history of the Mixtec people caused their culture to last until the arrival of the Spanish. Their origins are quite uncertain, but many authors think that they already inhabited parts of the continent in the pre-classic period.

Although the dates do not correspond to the European Copper Age, many of the characteristics of Mixtec culture are similar.

Thus, they were great masters of metallurgy and introduced new techniques such as filigree or welding. One of his specialties was the smelting of copper, as the content of some illustrated codices shows.

References

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