MONROE DOCTRINE: BACKGROUND, CAUSES, CHARACTERISTICS, CONSEQUENCES - HISTORY - 2025

The Monroe Doctrine is a political theory attributed to the fifth president of the United States, James Monroe, although it was outlined by John Quincy Adams. In this doctrine appeared the lines by which US foreign policy should be governed with respect to the rest of the American continent.

Monroe presented his theory in a speech before the Congress of his country in 1823. His words, summarized in the phrase "America for the Americans," promoted the idea that the entire continent should maintain its independence from the European powers. Likewise, it established that any attempt at colonization would be considered an act of war against the United States.

James Monroe, President of the United States - Source: Images of American Political History Public Domain

The United States supported the different independence processes in Latin America, although the doctrine soon began to be used to justify its own expansionism. In the decades that followed its enactment, other presidents added corollaries that ended up transforming the sentence that summarizes it into "America for Americans."

The first act based on the Monroe Doctrine was the annexation of several Mexican states to the US The consequences lasted until the 20th century, when it served to justify various military interventions in Latin American countries. Today, President Trump announced his intention to resurrect the doctrine during a speech at the UN.

Background

Despite being an independent country for some decades, the United States still feared a possible British attempt to regain its former colonial dominions. This fear was compounded by the colonies Britain still held in Canada in the early 1800s.

To try to end that threat, the United States declared war in 1812 on the British colonies in Canada. At the time, the British were fighting Napoleon's troops in Europe, and the Americans thought they could not serve both fronts. However, the war ended in failure for the United States.

However, this conflict had an important ideological consequence. From that moment on, the idea of ​​"manifest destiny" began to spread in the US. According to him, the country was destined to expand and defend freedom.

On the other hand, the Spanish colonies in Latin America were struggling for their independence. The United States recognized the new nations in 1822.

Threats from Europe

In the same 1822, two events caused concern in America. The first was the proclamation by Tsar Alexander I of Russia of the rights of his country on the Pacific coasts near Alaska, then Russian territory.

According to his calculations, this meant that the entire territory up to the north of Vancouver Island must be under the control of his country. Monroe declared that Russia should be clear that no European country could claim territories in America.

On the other hand, the Napoleonic wars in Europe were coming to an end. The victors, the absolutist powers (Prussia, Austria and Russia) formed the Holy Alliance in order to defend the monarchy against any attack.

His actions included his foray into Spain to help the Bourbons regain the throne. The United States feared that the Holy Alliance's next step would be to intervene in Latin America to reclaim the former Spanish colonies.

British proposal

Britain made a proposal to the United States to dissuade the European powers from attempting any military maneuver in Latin America. The Americans put one condition on that joint communiqué: that England recognize the independence of the former Spanish colonies.

The British did not respond to that request and President Monroe decided to act alone. To do this, he wrote a speech embedded in his message on the state of the Union.

Situation of the United States

Although the content of Monroe's speech contained warnings to powers attempting to colonize American territories, the truth is that American military capabilities were very limited.

The development of the United States at that time only allowed it to have some influence in the Caribbean area. There, in addition, he had economic interests, something that did not happen in the rest of Latin America.

Causes of the Monroe Doctrine

The causes that led Monroe to include in his speech the ideas that gave rise to the doctrine that bears his name were related to the historical context. In addition, according to some historians, the US claim to expand its territory also influenced.

Creation of the Holy Alliance

The most widespread theory among experts is that the Monroe Doctrine was promulgated in fear of an intervention by the European powers in America. In this sense, the main threat would be the Holy Alliance, an agreement between Napoleon's victorious absolutist monarchies with the intention of ending any liberal threat.

The Holy Alliance intervened militarily in Spain to return the throne to Fernando VII and end the constitutional government. The United States then feared that the next step might be to recover the colonial territories in America.

Anti-British sentiment

Other historians, such as TH Tatum, hold a different hypothesis about the main cause of the Monroe Doctrine. According to this expert, the ideas expressed were intended for England and not for the powers that had created the Holy Alliance.

For this group of historians, the alleged threat from the Holy Alliance had been a rumor spread by the British, but neither Monroe nor Adams really believed it. In this way, the doctrine was intended to deter any British attempt to form colonies, especially in Cuba.

American expansionism

There are different opinions about whether the Monroe Doctrine was promulgated to legitimize American claims to extend its territory or whether the conquest of new lands was a consequence of these ideas.

The United States, with its philosophy of Manifest Destiny and the Monroe Doctrine, conquered much of the Mexican territory. In addition, it intervened militarily in several Latin American countries.

characteristics

The Monroe Doctrine, developed by John Quincy Adams, was made public during President James Monroe's State of the Union address in 1823.

This doctrine has been summed up in the phrase "America for the Americans." In general terms, it declared that any intervention by a European country on the continent would be considered an aggression. The United States reserved the right to intervene militarily in that case.

From statement to doctrine

As noted above, the lack of military strength did not make it credible that the United States could go to war to defend any of the new Latin American nations.

For that reason, Monroe's speech was more of a statement of intent than actual doctrine.

Thus, when the British invaded the Malvinas Islands, then Argentine, in 1833, the United States could not put into practice what was promulgated by Monroe.

It was in 1845 that the United States made use of the doctrine for the first time. It was President James Polk who invoked it in support of the American claims to annex Texas and Oregon. In addition, he also opposed the alleged British maneuvers in relation to California, then belonging to Mexico.

America for Americans

The phrase used to summarize the Monroe Doctrine, "America for Americans," has been subject to several different interpretations.

For many experts, Monroe identified Americans with the white, Saxon and Protestant population of their country. From this concept, the belief arose that it was their obligation to extend their borders and spread their values, considered the only morally acceptable ones.

Main points

President Monroe's speech began by alluding to the claims that Russia maintained on the Pacific coast.

Later, he went on to refer to Latin America and the threat posed by the European powers to the countries that had just become independent. In this sense, Monroe demanded that Europeans not intervene in America.

On the other hand, the doctrine maintained US neutrality on any conflict between European countries, as George Washington had declared.

Central points

The Monroe Doctrine had three central points:

- "The American continents (…) should no longer be considered as objects of future colonization by European powers."

- "The political system of the allied powers is essentially different (…) from that of America (…) Any attempt by them to extend their system to any part of our hemisphere would be considered by us as dangerous to our peace and security"

- "In wars between European powers due to their own issues, we have never taken any part, nor does it interest our policy that we take it"

Rutherford Hayes Corollary

In 1880, more than fifty years after Monroe's speech, then-President Hayes added a new point to the doctrine.

The so-called Rutherford Hayes corollary established that the Caribbean and Central America were part of the "exclusive sphere of influence" of the United States. The most important consequence was that the Americans made clear their intention to fully control any canal that was built to link the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic.

With this addition, the United States legitimized its subsequent intervention to take over the Panama Canal.

On the other hand, this corollary also included a point that prohibited trade between Europe and the Caribbean and Central America. The intention was for the US to maintain its commercial monopoly in those areas.

Roosevelt Corollary

In 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt added a new corollary to the doctrine. The cause was the naval blockade established by the British, Germans and Italians on Venezuela. The three European powers blockaded the Latin American country between 1902 and 1903 and demanded the payment of the credits they had granted.

The United States acted as a mediator in the conflict and, when it was resolved, proceeded to add a corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. This established the right of the US government to intervene at its convenience in any American country in defense of its companies and interests. To do this, he assumed the right to reorder the State.

This corollary allowed the United States to intervene militarily in any country on the continent when it felt its interests threatened. This policy was dubbed "the big stick."

Consequences

The lack of military power of the United States caused that the European powers did not pay too much attention to Monroe's speech. For this reason, in subsequent years they maintained their presence in America, either commercially or in their colonies.

Reaction in Latin America

At first, Latin American countries welcomed Monroe's speech. However, already at that time some doubts appeared about the true intentions behind the doctrine.

Part of those doubts came from the scant support that the independence struggle had received from the United States. Furthermore, everyone knew that the American military power could not stand up to the Holy Alliance.

In 1826, Simón Bolívar convened the Congress of Panama and added the Monroe Doctrine as one of the points to be discussed. The end result was to avail itself of it in the event that the Spanish tried to regain the already independent territories.

First application

As noted above, the first time the Monroe Doctrine was invoked was in 1845. US President James Polk appealed to it to support his country's intentions to annex Texas and Oregon.

The Americans had supported Texas in its fight for independence from Mexico. Later, he started a war with that country that ended with the annexation of New Mexico, California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, Texas and part of Wyoming to the United States.

Later, in 1850, the doctrine was invoked again. This time, the cause was the rivalry between the Americans and the British in Central America.

Other American interventions

During the following decades, the United States used the Estrada Doctrine as a justification for intervening in various Latin American countries. In 1898, for example, he assisted the Cubans in their struggle for independence from Spain, albeit with the intention of controlling the later politics of the island.

Already in the 20th century, between 1916 and 1924, the United States occupied the Dominican Republic and imposed a military government.

Another of the countries in which the United States applied the doctrine was in Panama. In 1903 it influenced the separation of that country from Colombia. From then on, it maintained a military presence linked to the channel.

Good Neighbor Policy

The first attempt to end the Monroe Doctrine came in 1934. That year, President Roosevelt determined that no country could have the right to intervene in the internal affairs of another. This policy was baptized as the Good Neighbor policy.

However, Roosevelt's death in 1945 and the start of the Cold War resurrected the doctrine established by Monroe.

Cold War

One of the events that contributed to the reapplication of the Monroe Doctrine was the Cuban Revolution. The arrival of Castro to power in Cuba led US President Kennedy to decree an economic blockade. The excuse, in this case, was to prevent communism from spreading across the continent.

The same principle was used to justify US intervention, albeit sometimes indirect, in other Latin American countries. Among them, Nicaragua, El Salvador, the Dominican Republic or Chile.

Today, President Donald Trump has re-declared the Monroe Doctrine in effect. In a speech to the United Nations General Assembly, Trump declared: "Here in the Western Hemisphere, we are committed to maintaining our independence from the intrusion of expansionist foreign powers."

To this he added that "it has been the formal policy of our country since President (James) Monroe that we reject the interference of foreign nations in this hemisphere and in our own affairs."

References

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2. Marín Guzmán, Roberto. The Monroe Doctrine, Manifest Destiny and the expansion of the United States over Latin America. The case of Mexico. Recovered from dialnet.unirioja.es
3. Lissardy, Gerardo. What is the Monroe Doctrine that Trump raised at the UN against the influence of "foreign powers" in Latin America. Retrieved from bbc.com
4. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Monroe Doctrine. Retrieved from britannica.com
5. History.com Editors. Monroe Doctrine. Retrieved from history.com
6. Nelson, Ken. US History: The Monroe Doctrine for Kids. Retrieved from ducksters.com
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