ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM: ORIGIN, CHARACTERISTICS, REFORMS, REPRESENTATIVE KINGS - HISTORY - 2025

The enlightened despotism or enlightened absolutism was a political system that appeared in Europe during the second half of the eighteenth century. Although the government was still in the hands of absolute monarchies, the kings of the time tried to introduce some reforms related to the ideas of the Enlightenment.

The concept of enlightened despotism did not emerge until the 19th century, when German historians began to use it to distinguish it from classical absolutism. The enlightened monarchs enacted a series of reforms that sought to reactivate the economy, eliminate some of the privileges of the nobility and clergy, and improve the situation of the people.

King Carlos III of Spain - Source: According to Anton Raphael Mengs / Public domain

Many historians describe this system as paternalistic, since all those theoretically favorable reforms to the people were carried out without any kind of participation from the people. The motto that has defined enlightened absolutism clearly shows this circumstance: Everything for the people, but without the people.

Some of the kings who followed this trend were Carlos III of Spain, José I of Portugal, José II of Austria or Federico II of Prussia. However, experts doubt that some of them carried out the corresponding reforms due to the influence of the Enlightenment.

Origin of enlightened despotism

The concept "enlightened despotism" was not used during the time that this system of government was in force. It was German historians who, in the 19th century, began to use it to name the political system that appeared in the second half of the 18th century.

The monarchs who ruled with this system were based on the ideas of the Enlightenment. The philosophers of the time idealized the figure of the philosopher-king and many rulers wanted to approach that concept.

Definition

Enlightenment despotism was a form of government that attempted to unite absolutism with the ideas of the Enlightenment. This meant that monarchs had to reconcile their own interests with the welfare of their people.

Despite carrying out numerous economic, cultural and political reforms, the monarchs did not abandon absolutism. The king, therefore, continued to concentrate all the power of the state.

Maintenance of absolutism

Typical scene of the Old Regime. Painting by Adolph von Menzel (1850).

As has been pointed out, enlightened despotism did not abandon the characteristic system of government of the Old Regime: the absolute monarchy. All power was in the hands of the king, there were no constitutions and the rights of each social group were granted, or not, directly by the monarch.

However, the influence of the philosophers of the Enlightenment brought about some changes. Although the kings did not give up any of their power, they did begin to carry out some reforms that benefited their subjects. In addition, reason began to replace religion as the key aspect in society.

Illustration

The Enlightenment was a philosophical current that appeared in the 18th century. Enlightened authors began to put knowledge above religious dogmas. On the other hand, the enlightened affirmed that all human beings were born equal and, therefore, should have the same rights.

Both ideas were, in principle, dangerous for the monarchies and for the social structure of the time. The kings had used religion to legitimize their absolute power and, on the other hand, equality of rights was totally contrary to a hierarchical society in which the nobles and the clergy enjoyed all the privileges.

However, some monarchs decided to adapt to these new ideas. According to some historians, they did so convinced of the need for reforms, while others maintain that it was a strategy so that their thrones were not in danger.

In this way, instead of affirming that their right to exercise power came from God, they began to explain that it came from the so-called social contract, a concept created by the enlightened.

Characteristics of enlightened despotism

The monarchs who assumed enlightened despotism were characterized by their attempt to modernize their countries. Depending on the case, they were also more tolerant of freedom of expression and the press than their predecessors.

His relationship with the Church varied greatly depending on the country. In some of them, the kings maintained good relations, while in others there were major clashes.

Everything for the people, but without the people

The phrase "Everything for the people, but without the people" became the motto of enlightened despotism. In it you can see the paternalistic character of this system of government, in which the kings supposedly ruled in favor of their subjects but without giving them any of their power.

This paternalism was opposed to the ideas of the enlightened, who defended the need for the people to participate in political affairs. Some philosophers, such as Rousseau, considered that the people should be the main subject of sovereignty (popular sovereignty), which would have great importance in the French Revolution and in bourgeois revolutions.

Pact between the monarchy and the bourgeoisie

One of the great social changes that had taken place in Europe at the time had been the rise of the bourgeoisie. Although he could not yet access positions of power, this social class had become very important thanks to the accumulated wealth.

For this reason, the monarchies had to reach agreements with the bourgeoisie to carry out the enlightened reforms they wanted. On many occasions, these measures favored the bourgeois over the nobility and clergy.

Modernization of the monarchy

With the new system of government, the monarchs had to change their conception of power. From then on, they had to start ruling with the welfare of their people in mind and not just for their own benefit.

In this sense, enlightened despotism forced the kings to carry out a paternalistic policy: the elites had to make decisions that would improve as much as possible the living conditions of the majority.

Modernization of economic structures

The economic situation of the European countries in the second half of the 18th century was very negative. The crisis they were going through ended up causing an increase in social conflicts and the risk of revolutions breaking out was very present.

The absolutist monarchs understood that action was necessary if they did not want the people to rise up against them. Some of the approved reforms were aimed at developing commerce, industry, and modernizing agriculture.

Limitations of enlightened despotism

Faced with success in the economy, administration or education, enlightened despotism failed in the social sphere.

This failure was due to the fact that the monarchs agreed to give in in some fields, but they were not willing to end the hierarchical society typical of the Old Regime.

Rejection of political freedom

Closely related to the previous point is the rejection of the monarchs of enlightened despotism to any idea of ​​political freedom. While the philosophers of the Enlightenment held that the people should be the subject of sovereignty, kings were not willing to give up any of their power.

Finally, this point was one of the causes of the end of this system of government. The bourgeoisie, influenced by the Enlightenment and increasingly economically powerful, sought to have better social and political status. The revolutions were the consequence of this desire.

Reforms

In order to reconcile the absolutist system of government with some of the ideals of the Enlightenment, the kings had to undertake a series of structural reforms. Although the measures varied by country, in general they focused on administrative, educational, cultural and economic aspects.

Physiocracy and laissez faire

One of the ideas that was beginning to become popular at the time was that of free trade. The theoretical current that defended this concept was called physiocracy, which opposed the mercantilism that until then had been imposed as an economic doctrine.

While the supporters of mercantilism defended the need for the state to intervene in the economy, the Physiocrats were against this idea. For them, state regulations, the creation of monopolies and taxes were negative for the growth of the country.

This theory had quite a few points in common with the Enlightenment. In both cases, they trusted reason over faith and were staunch defenders of individual rights.

Enlightened despotism, albeit with considerable reluctance, promulgated some laws that favored free trade and, above all, limited the power that the nobility and clergy still held in this field.

Strengthening the States

The enlightened monarchs, like the absolutists before, were interested in increasingly limiting the power of the aristocracy and clergy. It was about strengthening the concept of the state, with them as the central figure, while suppressing the remains of the feudal structure.

To do this, they took measures that involved centralizing the administration. In addition, they unified the laws in force, as well as the institutions. Finally, they did not hesitate to intervene in the affairs of the Church.

Modernization of the economy and infrastructure

Agriculture, as the basis of the economy of the time, was the subject of a series of reforms that sought to improve its productivity. Among other measures, the monarchs promoted the construction of canals and swamps. Furthermore, in countries like Spain, they also tried to reform land ownership.

On the other hand, the cities also underwent a major modernization. Many monuments and public lighting systems date from that time.

Judicial and educational reforms

Justice reforms focused on eliminating some inhumane practices, such as torture.

In the educational field, on the other hand, the kings ordered the opening of numerous schools and universities.

Kings representatives

Enlightened despotism spread throughout much of the European continent. Among the most important kings are Carlos III of Spain, Maria Teresa and José II, of Prussia and Catherine the Great, in Russia.

Maria Teresa I of Austria

María Teresa I was Archduchess of Austria between 1740 and 1780. Her government was characterized by a strong confrontation with the nobility and the Church, as she approved measures to seize large areas of power from them. Thus, she increased taxes on the clergy and separated the Jesuits from any political decision.

Likewise, Maria Teresa I distinguished herself by promoting tolerance towards Jews. Their country became a safe haven for them and even prohibited Catholic priests from trying to convert them. Interestingly, according to historians, she had a very bad concept of Jews.

Finally, his attempt to pass a reform that would improve education and reduce illiteracy met with great rejection among the most favored sectors. The Archduchess, in response, ordered the opponents to be imprisoned.

Joseph II of Austria

Son of the previous one, José II became Archduke of Austria on the death of his mother, in 1780. His reign lasted only ten years, during which he followed the same ideas as his predecessor.

In this way, Joseph II kept the Church apart from the organs of power and promoted measures to extend religious tolerance. In addition to the Jews, the ruler extended that tolerance to Lutherans, Orthodox and Calvinists.

The nobility was another of the objectives of the reforms of José II. His intention was to limit his power, for which he freed the serfs and prohibited the nobles from administering justice to the peasants.

Continuing with the work of his mother, the monarch deepened in his educational reform. In this area, his great achievement was to educate 25% of the nation's children.

Frederick the Great

Frederick II of Prussia, known by the nickname of the Great, occupied the throne between 1740 and 1786. From a very young age he was a great reader of philosophy and connected with one of the most important enlightened thinkers, Voltaire.

One of his most popular measures was to provide seeds and tools to peasants so they could repair their farms after the Seven Years' War. Similarly, it introduced novelties such as crop rotation or the iron plow.

On the other hand, Frederick the Great was not characterized by his defense of freedom. During his tenure he maintained strict censorship of the press and did not hesitate to retaliate against the authors who wrote against him.

Catherine II of Russia

Portrait of Catherine II of Russia, by Ivan Argunov, via Wikimedia Commons

Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great, was the Empress of Russia between 1762 and 1796. According to her biographers, she was very fond of literature and art. In addition, she wrote some of her own works.

The empress maintained contact with enlightened philosophers of the stature of Diderot, Montesquieu and Voltaire.

With these interests it is not surprising that he showed great interest in promoting education and culture. Catherine II participated in the financing of Diderot's encyclopedia and bought numerous pieces of art that are now exhibited in the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg.

The Empress was also the author of an educational manual intended for children. To write it he relied on the ideas of John Locke. Finally, it prompted the creation of many new schools.

All of the above did not prevent Catherine the Great from banishing the intellectuals who opposed her government. Furthermore, when the French Revolution broke out, the ruler began to reject some of the central ideas of the Enlightenment.

Carlos III of Spain

The modernization of the capital of Spain has caused Carlos III to be called by the nickname of “the Best Mayor of Madrid”. His work included the construction of large avenues and monuments, as well as the installation of public lighting.

In addition to these urban reforms, Carlos III tried to reform land ownership in Spain. The Church and the nobility were the great landowners of the country and the monarch claimed that these lands passed into the hands of the peasants. However, the opposition of both sectors almost totally paralyzed the project.

Carlos III surrounded himself with several enlightened ministers to advise him. The measures they carried out were intended to develop the industry, in addition to ending the monopoly of the unions. Likewise, he founded the Royal Factories and promoted the textile industry in Catalonia.

In the field of trade, the monarch took measures to eliminate internal customs. During his reign, trade with America was liberalized, which meant the end of the monopoly of the Casa de Contratación. However, he maintained the protectionist policy with the other European powers.

References

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