MIXTEC CULTURE: LOCATION, HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS, ECONOMY, ORGANIZATION - HISTORY - 2024

The Mixtec culture was a pre-Columbian civilization considered one of the most important in Mesoamerica. Its history is also one of the most extensive among the various cultures of the region, although little is known about its evolution during the Preclassic and Classic periods.

This civilization had its moment of greatest splendor during the Postclassic period, when its influence spread throughout the south of present-day Mexico, and lasted until the arrival of the Spanish conquerors. Unlike other cultures, the Mixtecas never came to form a political unit that integrated all their settlements.

Despite the above, the government of Ocho Venado managed to unify part of the territory of Mixtec influence. This ruler also extended his dominions until reaching the coast between the states of Oaxaca and Guerrero. In addition to this zone, the Mixtec region was divided between the Lower Mixteca and the Upper Mixteca.

One of the best known characteristics of the Mixtecs was their mastery of crafts. Their skill led them to be considered the most famous artisans in Mexico, thanks especially to their work with metals and stone. In addition, they were the authors of a series of codices that have revealed their myths and historical events.

Geographic location

The region occupied by the Mixtec culture was baptized with his name: La Mixteca. In their language, the term means "country of rain." Geographically it was located in the south of Mexico, in the current states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and Puebla.

This area is characterized by its mountainous profile. The Mixtecs occupied two distinct areas: the upper area, which comprised northwest Guerrero and western Oaxaca, and the lower area, comprised of southwest Puebla and northwest Oaxaca.

Geographic division

The boundaries of the regions occupied by the Mixtecs are quite imprecise. Most historians, however, agree to divide their area of ​​influence according to the characteristics of the main settlements.

Already in colonial times, the chroniclers distinguished between the Upper Mixteca and the Lower Mixteca. In addition, many specialists link to the previous ones the so-called Mixteca de la Costa, between the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca.

Origin and history

The Mixtec culture is considered one of the peoples with the oldest origins in Mesoamerica. The first signs of its presence in the Mixteca date back to the fifth millennium BC. C., although it was not until agriculture developed in the area that its culture began to take shape.

The first stable settlements in the region were established around the third millennium BC. C. Its base was agricultural production, especially crops such as corn, beans, squash and chili.

Two thousand years later, during the Preclassic, the settlements grew and began to create a network of exchange.

There is very little information on the history of this culture during the Preclassic and Classic. The Postclassic, when they lived their greatest moment of splendor, is a much better known period

Mythical origin of the Mixtecs

Mixtec beliefs shared some elements with other cultures in the region. Thus, as was the case with Mexica and Maya, their mythology affirmed that they lived in the era of the Fifth Sun and that, before their time, the world went through various destructive and creative events.

Their myths stated that in the beginning of time chaos reigned on the planet, with the spirits of the creative forces flying through the air. According to the Mixtec codices, the names of these spirits were One Deer-Jaguar Serpent and One Deer-Puma Serpent.

Both divinities created the four creator gods, parents of the rest of the divinities and of humanity. One of those four first gods copulated with the hole he had made in a tree located in the clouds. From that union was born a man destined to challenge the sun.

The combat began with that man, the Sun Arrow, shooting arrows at the star, while it responded with its rays. Finally, at sunset, the Sun was mortally wounded and hid behind the mountains.

The Archer feared that the Sun would rise again and reclaim his lands. To prevent this, he organized human beings to start growing corn on the land they had earned that very night. When the Sun returned the next day, he could do nothing and the Mixtecs became the owners of the area.

Preclassic Period

As noted, Mixtec history during this period is little known. It is known that about the XV century a. C. raised the first urban centers. Among those, some of those built in the Upper Mixteca stand out, especially Monte Negro and Huamelulpan.

Later, about the 5th century BC. Other settlements appeared, such as Tayata and Etlatongo, also in the Upper Mixteca, or Huajuapan, in the Lower Mixteca.

Classical period

Although the data on this period are also very scarce, historians affirm that at that time the centers of power began to change. Thus, Yucuita lost its role as the main city at the hands of Yucuñudahui.

On the other hand, new settlements continued to appear. One of the most important was the Cerro de las Minas, in the Lower Mixteca.

Some of those settlements were not built by the Mixtecs. Monte Albán, for example, was an ancient Zapotec town that was inhabited by the Mixtecs when its original inhabitants abandoned it.

Postclassic Period

The best known period, and the greatest splendor, of Mixtec culture developed during the Postclassic period. This knowledge w3 transmitted thanks to oral tradition, collected in writing by the colonial chroniclers. Likewise, the codices produced by this culture have provided a large amount of relevant information.

During this time there was a significant increase in population, especially in the Upper Mixteca. It is estimated that the number of settlers doubled during the 10th and 16th centuries AD. C.

Mixtec culture never had a unified state. In reality, their populations were practically city-states, frequently at odds with each other. These cities exercised power over nearby towns, weaving a hierarchical network very characteristic of this culture.

Postclassic - colonization of the coast

Before this period, the coast of present-day Oaxaca was inhabited by Zapotec peoples. About the 10th century AD. C., Mixtec-speaking groups began to appear, which has led historians to think that there was a colonization of the area.

This population displacement, possibly in large numbers, transformed the situation in the region. The Mixtecs became the political elite and dominated the Zapotec and Chatin peoples present in the area.

As in the case of Tututepec, some of the chiefdoms must have had a multi-ethnic population. The remains of that town show a significant demographic increase between the 9th and 10th centuries, possibly due to the aforementioned arrival of Mixtec culture groups.

Tututepec became one of the most important populations of that culture from the eleventh century, since it was the original capital of the government of Ocho Venado.

Postclassic - Eight Deer chiefdom

As noted, Mixtec culture was made up of numerous independent political entities. The only time anything similar to a unified entity was created was during the government of the Eight Deer-Jaguar Claw, in the late 11th and early 12th centuries.

This ruler acceded to the throne of the Lordship of Tilantongo thanks to the prestige obtained in several military campaigns, since in principle he was not the heir by descent.

In 1083 he was appointed ruler of Tututepec, near the coast of the Pacific Ocean. His subsequent alliance with the Toltecs served to strengthen his position and to gain access to the throne of Tilantongo when the chief Dos Lluvias died. As usual, Eight Deer ordered the killing of all the descendants of his predecessor to avoid legitimacy problems.

His first conquests were, precisely, some manors ruled by members of the royal lineage of Tilantongo: Place de Bulto de Xipe, in 1101 d. C. and Jaltepec. During the time he held the throne, Ocho Venado expanded his dominions by conquering about a hundred Mixtec lordships. In addition, I use marriage politics to seal alliances with other peoples.

With this, he became the only Mixtec ruler who managed to unify the three Mixtecs under his command and control the political centers of each region: Tilantongo, in Alta; Tututepec, on the Coast; and Teozacoalco, in the Baja.

Eight Deer was defeated when a series of rebellious manors allied against him. The ruler was sacrificed in 1115 and his dominions were divided into several states.

Mexican conquest

After the division of the kingdom created by Ocho Venado, the conflicts between the different Mixtec lordships reappeared, which caused them to weaken militarily. At that time, the Mixteca was one of the richest regions in Mesoamerica, which drew the attention of other expanding civilizations.

At that time the Triple Alliance had been formed, led by the Mexicans and completed by Tetzcoco and Tlacopan. Within their strategy to extend their dominions they soon settled on the Mixteca and, by the middle of the 15th century, they had managed to conquer a large part of its territory.

Many towns of Mixtec culture were converted into tribute payment centers to the Mexica, such as Coixtlahuaca.

Despite Tenochtitlan's advance, the Mixtec coast managed to resist their attacks, in part due to having formed an alliance with the Zapotecs.

Spanish conquest

When the Spanish conquerors arrived in Veracruz, some peoples under Aztec rule thought they could help them to free themselves. With the help of these peoples, the Spanish conquered Tenochtitlan in 1521 and later began attacking other civilizations, including the Mixtec.

Faced with military inferiority, the Mixtec rulers established agreements with the conquerors. This allowed them to preserve some of their traditions, although only for a few decades.

General characteristics of the Mixtecs

The first thing that stands out about Mixtec culture is its long duration. Historians have dated its presence in Mesoamerica to the Preclassic period, about the 15th century BC. C. and lasted until after the arrival of the Spanish conquerors.

Language

The language of the region during the Preclassic was Protomixtecano, the antecedent of the Mixtec languages ​​that are still preserved. Already in the Postclassic, it is estimated that the inhabitants of the Mixteca region spoke three different variants.

Experts say that all three variants shared the same base and that the difference lay in their use. Thus, the nobles spoke one of the varieties, another was used in everyday life, and the third only among merchants.

The colonization of the Coast by Mixtec peoples in the 10th century AD. C. was the beginning of a differentiation between the Mixtec spoken in the highlands and its coastal variety.

This knowledge about the Mixtec language comes, for the most part, from the work carried out by the Dominican friars in charge of evangelizing Oaxaca. It was they who established a phonetic script for this language.

In addition, Antonio de los Reyes and Francisco de Alvarado, also friars, wrote the first written grammar in the variant of the language spoken in the Upper Mixteca.

Writing

The Mixtec writing system was greatly influenced by the Zapotecs, although it did not reach the level reached by the Mayans.

This system combined pictographic and logographic elements to record their ideas or convey messages. In addition, it was a writing with a tonal character, which implies that each word varied in meaning depending on the way it was pronounced.

Most of the writing remains that have been found collected the narration of some important events, as well as the names of their protagonists. However, the most outstanding writings made by this culture were its famous codices.

Mixtec codices

The Mixtec codices are a series of documents that the members of this culture used to preserve their history, explain their religious beliefs, or record the genealogy of families. They featured important characters, such as Ocho Venado, with information about their marriages or the military conquests that they starred in.

In addition to their testimonial importance, these codices are also a great example of the mastery of Mixtec artisans. The basis of the codices was deerskin, cut into long strips about 12 meters long and 30 centimeters wide. For filing they were folded as if they were a screen.

The artisans painted scenes and drawings on them delimited, as if they were vignettes, by red lines.

Among the most representative are the Nuttal-Zouche Codex, the Vindobonensis Codex or the Columbian Codex.

Feeding

The basis of the diet of the Mixtec peoples was the products they grew, especially beans, squash and corn. Almost all of these foods were grown in the vicinity of the settlements.

To these products they added, less frequently, meat from hunting, as well as some plants that they collected. After the conquest, in the 16th century, they incorporated elements such as sugar cane, banana, wheat or lime into their diet.

Economy

Like the rest of the Mesoamerican cultures, the main base of the Mixtec economy was agriculture. Likewise, they also exchanged grains and crafts with towns in their region or even further afield.

farming

The agricultural production of the Mixtecos depended on the topography of the territory and the rest of the environmental conditions. For this reason, the type of cultivation varied depending on the Mixtec area, since the environments were quite different.

As was the case in almost all of Mesoamerica, the most important product they grew was corn. Along with this cereal they also harvested significant amounts of beans, chili and squash. In some areas, conditions permitting, they developed crops of less common species such as cotton or cocoa.

The Mixtec culture had to overcome the difficulties that the orography of some mountainous areas represented for agriculture, as well as the lack of water in some regions. While in the valleys of the Upper Mixteca harvests were abundant, the dry climate of the Lower Mixteca and La Costa made it necessary to develop a technology to increase production.

Archaeologists have found remains of artificial terraces on the slopes of some mountains, a technique used to expand the acreage. This type of structure also made it possible to make better use of water.

Other activities

The domesticated animals were not too many. The turkey and the xoloitzcuintle stood out in this regard, which they used as a source of meat in the diet.

Another economic activity in the Mixteca was the raising of the cochineal. This parasite was highly valued for obtaining a dye called carmine, of an intense red color. This industry continued in the area until the 19th century, when artificial colors displaced natural ones.

Finally, the Mixtec culture also developed a certain commercial activity, under the modality of exchange. The most common products in these exchanges were the food they grew, the aforementioned cochineal and some crafts. Soon, moreover, they began to trade metals.

Religion

Mixtec beliefs had several points in common with other Mesoamerican religions. It was an animistic and polytheistic religion, with a pantheon made up of deities that represented forces of nature.

On the other hand, Mixtec culture affirmed that human beings had a spirit and that there was a life after death. This led them to honor their ancestors.

Priests

Within the Mixtec social hierarchy, its shamans or priests were among the most powerful classes. Called Yaha Yahui, these religious figures enjoyed great prestige because it was believed that they were capable of transforming into animals and that they had supernatural powers.

Main gods

As previously noted, the Mixtec gods represented various forces of nature. The patron of this culture was Dzahui, god of rain, who headed its pantheon.

Other deities below Dzahui were Cohuy, god of corn; Yozotoyua, god of merchants; Huehuetéotl, god of fire; Tonatiuh, sun god; or Mictlantecuhtli, god of death. In addition to these gods, the Mixtecs also worshiped Quetzalcoatl and Huitayuta.

Social organization

Mixtec society was organized hierarchically, although this pyramidal structure took a long time to form. Historians affirm that the demographic explosion that began in the Classic period was the cause of this organizational system to settle permanently.

Internal organization

Mixtec society was organized in the shape of a pyramid, with the rulers at the top and a base made up of servants. Religion played an important role in legitimizing these differences, since it was a theocracy.

The most important figure within the social hierarchy was the king or lord of each chiefdom. It was called "yya". Given the lack of political unity of this culture, there used to be numerous caciques at the same time.

Behind the ruler was the nobility, called "dzayya yya." Its main function was to fulfill the king's requests. Likewise, in this second social echelon appeared the priests, in charge of all religious ceremonies.

The next position was occupied by the "tay ñnu", the free people. These were artisans and merchants, with permission to establish their own businesses.

The landless inhabitants, from peasants to assistants of artisans, occupied the penultimate position in the pyramid. Below were only the serfs, called "tay sinoquachi", and the slaves, without any rights.

Social ascent

One of the characteristics of the hierarchical Mixtec society was the impossibility of ascending in it. Marriages were celebrated between members of the same class, so that route of social advancement was also closed.

This custom of getting married only within the same social class ended up causing a great inbreeding. In the political sphere, this led to an increase in social inequality and a strengthening of alliances between the powerful.

Main cities of the Mixtecs

Mixtec cities were not usually very large. In most cases, these were small villages close to the farm fields. Among the most important were Tilantongo, Milta, and Tututepec, all ceremonial centers.

Mitla

The name of this town in the Mixtec language was Ñuu Ndyi, which means Place of the Dead. It was located in the current Mexican state of Oaxaca, specifically in Monte Albán.

Even today remains of several important temples can be seen, as well as those of a palace.

Tututepec

The manor of the same name was one of the four major kingdoms of the Mixtec region and was located on the coast.

The name of the city and the manor comes from the Nahuatl Tototepec, whose meaning is Cerro de los Pájaros. Its moment of greatest splendor was lived when Ocho Venado became its ruler and, from there, began his campaign to expand his dominions and create the largest political unit in all of Mixtec history.

Tilantongo

Tilantongo was the denomination of the most important political center of the Upper Mixteca during the Postclassic. Its history is reflected in some of the codices made by this culture. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, this city was linked to Eight Deer, who established the capital of his extensive kingdom there.

Art

The Mixtecos earned a deserved fame for their skills as artisans, to the point of being considered among the best in pre-Hispanic Mexico. To make their works, of diverse themes, they used several different types of materials.

Likewise, this culture is among the first to practice metallurgy in Mesoamerica. They stood out, especially, for their work with gold, a material that they related to the gods. Finally, they were also great teachers in the use of copper and ceramics.

Architecture

Simplicity was the main characteristic of the architecture practiced by the Mixtecs. The archaeological remains show that its buildings did not usually reach a large scale.

The Mixtec codices explain that the temples were built on pyramidal platforms, with steps to access their interior. Civil buildings, for their part, were organized around large squares and had interior courtyards.

Ceramics

The resistance of ceramics has allowed many of the pieces made by Mixtec artisans to have resisted to this day. The oldest ones found date from the Middle Preclassic and show an important influence of the Olmecs and the Zapotecs.

Already during the Classic period, in the Lower Mixteca the so-called ñuiñe style developed, also with a strong Zapotec influence. Among the most common representations were those of the god of fire, although colossal heads such as those found in Acatlán were also frequent.

During the Postclassic, Mixtec potters further refined the finishes, in addition to decorating them with rich motifs. They were pieces with little thickness and red or brown.

As noted, these pieces were elaborately decorated. The theme and colors were very similar to those found in the codices of this culture. It is assumed that this polychrome pottery was reserved for the elite, but some pieces found outside their territory suggest that they could have been used for trade.

Pottery

The best time of Mixtec pottery occurred during the Postclassic. The iconographic style that appeared at that time and that spread throughout La Mixteca shows influences from earlier Mesoamerican traditions, especially from Teotihuacan and the Mayan and Zapotec areas.

Metallurgy

Mixtec culture was a pioneer in the practice of metallurgy in Mesoamerica. During the Postclassic, this industry began to be widely used in Oaxaca, an area where copper axes have been found.

Its use in art was very marked by the importance that this culture gave to gold. This metal was considered as the excrement of the gods and became the symbol of the Sun. For this reason, some of the most important works of the Mixtecs combine gold with turquoise, the sunstone par excellence among Mesoamerican peoples.

Customs and traditions

The Mixtecs who live in Mexico today have preserved part of their traditions. However, some of them come from the mix between their traditional customs and the later Spanish influence. Likewise, ancient codices and oral histories reveal some aspects of his life that are now missing.

Parties

Although it is difficult to know if this was the case in the past, the truth is that today the Mixtecs give great importance to the festivities. Thus, celebrations for births, funerals or marriages are frequent. In these celebrations to be elected butler in a great honor.

Another tradition deeply rooted in the culture of all Mexico is the Day of the Dead. Although experts do not think that this festival has a unique origin, it is believed that the Mixtecs may have contributed to its preservation.

Mixtec ball game

As with many other Mesoamerican cultures, the Mixtecs practiced, and still do, their own version of the ball game.

Kinship system

The family is one of the pillars of Mixtec culture. One of the functions of the codices was to collect the genealogy of each related group, which had an impact on the inheritance system.

During the Postclassic, Mixtec culture followed a kinship system that experts call Hawaiian. Through this type of family organization, each individual acquired succession rights from the two parents. In addition, women saw their participation in high positions of power favored.

Today, that old system can still be glimpsed in the transmission of land from father to son.

Relationships

There is not much historical data on this aspect, but the current Mixtecs give great importance to social relations. Even greetings are considered essential. In fact, the reputation and consideration of each individual as a member of society is closely linked to how they behave with other people.

Human sacrifice

One of the ancient traditions that has obviously disappeared is human sacrifice. For the Mixtec culture, these sacrifices had a ritual and religious character. Numerous skulls have been found that come from this custom, as well as remains of animals also used in these ceremonies.

Decline

The archaeological remains found allow us to affirm that the decline of the Mixtec culture began after the division of the kingdom created by Ocho Venado.

When their dominions were disintegrated, the old disputes and confrontations between each dominion reappeared. The result was the weakening of its military strength in the face of Aztec and Spanish attacks.

Aztecs

The powerful Aztec empire began a campaign of conquest against the Mixtec kingdoms at the end of the Postclassic. When they managed to defeat someone, they were forced to pay a tribute to the Aztec emperor, usually pieces made of metal and precious stones.

The only territory that resisted these attacks was Tututepec, which managed to maintain its independence and also allied with the Zapotecs to prevent the conquest of the isthmus of Tehuantepec.

Spanish conquest

The arrival of the Spanish conquerors was not, at first, badly received by the Mixtecs. For the kingdoms under Aztec rule, allying with the newcomers seemed a good strategy to regain their freedom.

Thus, many voluntarily declared themselves vassals of Castile and, thanks to that, they retained some privileges. Those who did not want to ally with the Spanish were defeated militarily without much difficulty.

However, the Spanish soon began to force the Mixtecs to abandon their customs and beliefs. Later, as a result of the reductions, many towns disappeared and their inhabitants relocated.

Present

Today, Mixtecos are the fourth indigenous minority by number of components in Mexico. Factors such as poverty have forced the members of this people to abandon their traditional territories. Most of them have emigrated to large Mexican cities, although there is also evidence of their presence in the United States and Canada.

References

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