INCA CULTURE: ORIGIN, CHARACTERISTICS, ORGANIZATION, CULTURE - HISTORY - 2025

The Inca culture, also called Quechua civilization, was one of the great civilizations that developed in pre-Columbian America. Although the origins of the Inca people are much older, their heyday as an empire occurred around the 13th century BC. C., when they arrived at the valley of Cusco, in present Peru.

From that moment on, the Incas were expanding their territory until they became a great empire under the command of a king who concentrated all power: the Sapa Inca or, simply, the Inca. This empire lasted for almost three centuries, until the arrival of the Spanish conquerors in 1532.

Machu Picchu Ruins - Source: Allard Schmidt (The Netherlands) under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License

Inca society was highly hierarchical, although that did not prevent the group from being given great importance. This characteristic was very visible in the economy, since its fundamental principles were the redistribution of the resources obtained by the work. In agriculture, for example, all land belonged to the state, which distributed it according to need.

Like the rest of the civilizations of the time, the Incas were polytheistic and gave great importance to religion. On the other hand, they were responsible for important advances in the area of ​​agriculture, transport or architecture. Their cultural influence can still be seen in the areas that they dominated.

Origin and history

Most of the known data on indigenous civilization comes from studies carried out by the Spanish colonizers. These were based on oral tradition and on the testimonies of religious and indigenous people of the time. However, sometimes reality and myth are intertwined.

Founding myth

Among the best known myths are a legend that relates the arrival of the Incas to the Cusco valley.

Inti, the sun god, and Quilla, the moon goddess, were in love. This love was totally impossible, as they could never find. However, a prophecy announced that they would both have a boy and a girl on Lake Titicaca.

The prophecy began to be fulfilled when one day the earth became dark and both gods could meet. The fruit of their love were Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo. Inti commissioned them to educate men in the practice of agriculture and livestock, as well as weaving and working at home.

Furthermore, the Sun god gave them a golden rod that had the power to guide them to a fertile land. The rod had to be buried in that place, where they had to build the capital.

Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo began their pilgrimage. Months later, after several attempts, they reached a region inhabited by the Aymara, the Collas and the Urus, who received them with hostility.

For this reason, the children of Inti continued their journey until they reached the valley of Cusco. Manco Cápac dropped the rod, which buried itself completely. There they founded Cusco.

Historical origins of the Incas

The origins of the Inca people are much more remote than their transformation into an empire. Thus, it is known that as early as 1100 BC. C. controlled a considerable territory in Peru. However, it was not until the beginning of the 13th century when they arrived in the Cusco Valley and began its history as one of the most important pre-Columbian civilizations.

The Incas who reached Cusco were fleeing from the kingdom of Tiahuanaco, which had been invaded by the Aymara from Tucumán. This invasion caused the Taipican aristocrats, some priests and several families to march northeast. To do this, they crossed Lake Titicaca and, at first, settled on one of its islands.

The second stage of this journey, again caused by the threat of the Aymara, was led by Manco Cápac, who, together with 10 families, reached Huaynacancha.

After leaving Huaynacancha, the members of this group continued their journey until, years later, reaching the Cusco valley. This was inhabited by several different peoples, which were militarily defeated by the newcomers. Once Manco Cápac and his followers controlled the region, they began a policy of alliances with nearby communities.

Pre-state era: formation

Sinchi Roca, son of Manco Cápac, was the next ruler of Cusco. Data on those years are very scarce, although it is known that his reign lasted between 1230 and 1260.

His successor was Lloque Yupanqui, who signed more alliances with nearby towns. After him, Mayta Cápac and Cápac Yupanqui ruled, who, especially the latter, began to expand their dominions militarily.

The reign of Cápac Yupanqui ended in 1350 and it was the end of the so-called pre-state stage. Historians have chosen that name because an Inca nation had not yet been born, but rather a kind of macroethnicity.

Expansion phase

The next stage in the history of the Inca culture was that of expansion, which, in turn, is divided into two periods. In the first, after securing control of Cusco, the Incas began to expand into the surrounding areas.

During those years the upper class of their society was formed, divided into two sectors: Hanan, a group in charge of the military; and Urin, who carried out religious tasks.

This period ended when the Incas and Chancas, a people settled in the north of Cusco, entered Güera.

For its part, the second stage of the expansion phase was the definitive expansion of the Incas. His army defeated the Chancas, Collas, Huancas and Chimus, among other peoples, which allowed the creation of an extensive empire.

Crisis and conquest

The death of the Inca Huayna Cápac caused a conflict between his possible heirs: Huáscar and Atahualpa. This civil war weakened the Incas, something that favored the advance of the Spanish conquerors.

In addition, several epidemics caused many deaths among the Incas and a crisis occurred in the economic system of the kingdom. Similarly, some towns dominated by the Incas rebelled against them and supported the Spanish.

Atahualpa was taken prisoner in November 1532, which, despite some pockets of resistance, meant the end of the Inca empire.

Geographical and temporal location

As noted above, the Inca people made their appearance a few thousand years before establishing their empire. Some recent genetic studies even affirm that its origin dates from about 6,000 years ago, although other historians do not agree.

Despite the mixture of legends and historical facts that exists on this subject, there is consensus that its arrival in the Cusco valley and the founding of this city dates back to the 18th century AD. From that moment on, this culture lasted for almost three centuries, when the Spanish conquerors conquered their lands in 1532.

Geographic location

Taking the current territorial division as a reference, the Inca culture controlled all of Peru, Ecuador, western Bolivia, northern Argentina and Chile, and a part of Colombia. At its peak, its territories totaled some 4,000 square kilometers.

Capital

Cusco, founded in the valley of the same name, was the capital of the empire. Its foundation has been dated around 1200 AD. From there, the Incas proceeded to extend their territory and take advantage of the knowledge of the peoples they were conquering.

In addition to the capital, some other important cities of the Inca civilization were Machu Picchu, Ollantaytambo, Kenko, Tipón or Sacsayhuamán.

General characteristics

The Inca civilization became one of the most important powers in the entire American continent and left a legacy that has been preserved through time.

Tahuantinsuyo

Another of the names by which the Inca culture was known was Tahuantinsuyo. The meaning of this word is "The four yours", a reference to both the cardinal points and the four provinces (Suyos) in which they divided their empire.

Economy

Many experts consider that the Inca economic system was based on the idea of ​​community and not on the search for personal wealth. In this way, its economy had as its main reference the ayllu, which it calls a kind of agricultural community.

Agriculture was precisely the basis of its economy. The main crop was corn, closely followed by potatoes. The technological advances introduced by the Incas allowed this activity to be very productive.

The organization of land ownership was also community-centered. Thus, the State, represented by the Inca, was the owner of all the land and distributed the cultivation areas depending on the needs of each family.

On the other hand, the State also maintained exhaustive control over the workers. The intention was for productivity to be high, in addition to ensuring housing and other goods for the population. Among the measures taken was the obligation of all inhabitants to work, although there were different tasks depending on the personal situation.

Besides agriculture, the Incas also domesticated some animals. Among them the llamas, vicuñas and alpacas, which became very important elements within its economy.

Terraces and hydraulic system

As has been noted, the Incas made important advances in the field of agriculture. The main one was, possibly, the use of the land by creating terraces to cultivate. To this must be added the efficient system of irrigation canals installed on their lands.

All these advances allowed the Incas to cultivate almost 70 different plant species. Some of the conquered towns, in addition, paid their tributes by delivering products not common in the valley, which increased the variety.

Inca Trail

The Incas also built an extensive communications network that connected all areas of their empire. The total extension of this network reached 30,000 kilometers.

Within this system, the Camino Real stood out, with more than 5,000 kilometers in length and linking the secondary roads of the empire.

Likewise, the so-called Inca Trail, built to link Cusco with Machu Picchu, was very important.

Religion

The religion followed by the Incas was polytheistic, with a large number of gods closely related to natural forces. The main deity was Inti, the Sun god, while the goddess of the earth was called Pachamama.

According to Inca beliefs, everything offered by nature had to be thanked in the form of sacrifice. These did not have to be from human beings, although they also occurred.

On the other hand, the Incas believed in life after death. For them, there were three different worlds: Hanan Pacha, where the gods resided; the Kay Pacha, home of human beings; and the Uku Pacha, the world of the dead.

Military organization

The territorial expansion of the Inca kingdom could take place thanks to the power of its army. This was divided between professional soldiers and those hired specifically for each campaign.

The Incas based their victories on the large number of soldiers they sent to each battle and on the religious sense that was given to the confrontations. In addition, they excelled in the construction of military fortresses.

Language

The breadth of the Inca empire, together with the number of conquered or dependent peoples, led to the use of more than 700 languages ​​in its territory.

The rulers sent helpers throughout the empire to spread their official language. This, at first, received the name Runa Simi and, later, it was called Quechua.

Political organization

According to many historians, the way in which the Incas organized their political system was the most advanced of all pre-Columbian civilizations. This is due to the obligation that the State imposed itself to guarantee that all its subjects had at their disposal what was necessary to survive.

Territorial division

To favor the administration of the empire, its leaders divided the territory into four provinces, called suyu in Quechua: Antisuyo, Contisuyo, Chinchaysuyo and Collasuyo. The capital was located in Cusco, located in the center of the territorial division.

In turn, those four of theirs were divided into smaller territories called huamanis. Each of them had its own governor, with military and political functions. Ultimately, the governor was held accountable to the Inca and the Imperial Council.

The Inca

The absolute monarch of the empire was the Sapa Inca or, more simply, the Inca. Only the High Priest had a similar power, although without reaching it.

The Sapa Inca wore a red wool tassel, the mascapaicha, as a symbol of their status. Each of those who reigned in the empire ordered to build their own palace, where they received all the officials and gave justice.

Likewise, the Inca used to frequently visit the different areas that made up his kingdom. His purpose was to know first-hand everything that happened in him and the requests of his people.

Administration decimal base

To improve the functioning of their administration, the Incas created a unique system of organization. The reason for its establishment was a certain distrust in the work of its officials.

In this way, each of the officials had to control 10 lower-level employees and, each of these, another ten. It was a kind of pyramidal organization that achieved that for every 10 public workers there was a direct person in charge.

Rest of the power hierarchy

Under the Inca there were a series of positions of power, each with its own characteristics and functions.

The first of them was the Auqui, the heir of the Inca. One of his obligations before occupying the throne was to learn the imperial functions alongside his father, becoming a kind of co-ruler. The Auqui could be any of the Inca's children and was chosen for the qualities shown.

After the Auqui the Imperial Council (Tahuantinsuyo Camachic) ​​was located. This was formed by the governors of the four of his and by 12 secondary councilors.

On the other hand, each province into which theirs were divided also had their own governors.

To the previous positions we must add that of Tucuyricuc or tocricoc (the one who sees everything). It was an imperial supervisor in charge of controlling the public workers of the provinces. In addition, he collected the tributes and sent them to Cusco.

Finally, the communities were headed by the curaca, a kind of cacique. He was usually an elder with prestige in the ayllu.

Social organization

The center of the Tahuantinsuyo society was the ayllu, a term that called an Inca community. In their organization as a society, all work on communal lands, public works, or military service was performed by ayllus.

In front of these ayllus was the old man considered wiser, whom they called curaca. This was advised by the council of elders. However, in case of war they had to cede their functions to the sinchi, a military command chosen from among the strongest in the community.

Social classes

Despite the importance that was given to the ayllus, Inca society was very stable. In it there were two large groups: the nobility and the people, although in each of these classes there were differentiated groups.

In this way, at the top of the social pyramid was the realization. Apart from the Sapa Inca, his wife and children were also included, among whom the heir was chosen.

Below royalty was the equivalent of nobility. This consisted of two levels: in the first, that of blood, formed by the descendants of the Royal Council. They were those who occupy the high military, religious or administrative positions; the second level was made up of the privileged nobility, townspeople who had performed important acts for the State.

The last social class, excepting the slaves, was formed by the common people, the hatun runes. Typically, they did agricultural or construction work.

In addition to the previous classes, you could also find the colonizers or mitimaes. These belonged to tribes other than the Inca, but had sworn allegiance to their rulers.

Culture (gastronomy, traditions, art)

The empire created by the Incas integrated a large number of cultural traditions of the peoples it had conquered. This, together with their own customs, endowed them with great wealth in all areas of culture.

A good example of that wealth was its architecture. Among its constructions, the temples, palaces or monumental cities such as Machu Picchu or Ollantaytambo stood out.

Gastronomy

According to experts, the gastronomy of the Incas was based almost entirely on agriculture. Their main foods were, therefore, the products that they themselves produced thanks to their advanced farming systems.

Potatoes and legumes were the main foods in the Inca diet, along with corn. Also important, although to a lesser extent, were pumpkins, chili and beans, something that can still be seen in the traditional cuisine of countries like Peru.

On the other hand, the meat consumption was considerably lower. The Incas had domesticated several animal species, but in most cases their consumption was not the main objective. Finally, in the Lake Titicaca area, various types of fish and waterfowl were incorporated into the diet.

Traditions

Like the Egyptians, the Incas mummified their sovereign when he died. The Sapa Inca was considered the Son of the Sun and, according to his beliefs, his body had to be kept intact for eternity.

There are numerous references to this Inca practice, although, so far, none of these mummies have been found.

Another tradition of the Inca culture was the custom of bathing newborns in a nearby stream. The parents, in addition, followed a fast for several days and prayed that the son would have fortune in his life.

After that first bath, the mother attached some boards to the child's head so that the skull took an elongated shape.

On the other hand, archaeologists have found remains that confirm the existence of human sacrifices to the gods, especially Inti. The ceremony began with a banquet to honor the sacrificed. Later, the priests led them to a mountain or hill to perform the sacrifice.

Despite the evidence on this practice, experts point out that these sacrifices were not frequent. They were usually only carried out in very exceptional circumstances, such as an earthquake or some other natural disaster.

Art

Architecture was the most important artistic manifestation of the Inca culture. Its main characteristics were symmetry, solidity and simplicity.

The Incas did not apply their architectural knowledge to buildings intended to serve as dwellings, which were quite rustic. His innovations were entirely devoted to public buildings, both religious and administrative, without forgetting defensive ones and palaces.

In these constructions, the Inca architects managed to combine functionality with aesthetics, thanks to careful planning and the advanced use of stone.

Experts divide Inca architecture into three stages: the cyclopean, characterized by the use of large stones; the polygonal, in which the stones had many angles; and the imperial, when the use of rectangular or square ashlars was imposed.

Among the most outstanding examples of Inca architecture are the Coricancha, Pisac, Machu Picchu and Ollantaytambo complexes.

On the other hand, the Incas were excellent sculptors. The main material used to make their statues was stone, although they also used metals such as silver or gold. Likewise, these two metals were widely used in goldsmithing to make ornaments.

References

1. Encyclopedia of History. Inca Culture. Obtained from encyclopediadehistoria.com
2. History of Peru. Inca Empire or Tahuantinsuyo. Obtained from historiaperuana.pe
3. Arthistory. Inca culture. Obtained from artehistoria.com
4. Cartwright, Mark. Inca Civilization. Retrieved from ancient.eu
5. History.com Editors. Inca. Retrieved from history.com
6. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Inca. Retrieved from britannica.com
7. Jarus, Owen. The Inca Empire. Retrieved from livescience.com
8. Crystalinks. Inca Civilization. Retrieved from crystalinks.com