CONQUEST OF PERU: DISCOVERY, STAGES AND CONSEQUENCES - HISTORY - 2025

The conquest of Peru was the period during which the Spanish Empire took control of the current Peruvian territory. Although there had already been some expeditions to these lands, it is considered that the authentic conquest began on November 16, 1532, when the Spanish and the Incas met in Cajamarca.

After the conquest of Panama, the Spanish conquerors began to receive news about the existence of an empire very rich in gold. Rumors claimed that the headquarters of said empire was Birú or Pirú. Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro and Hernando de Luque began preparations to reach that place.

History of the conquest of Peru - Source: Old Collection of the Library of the University of Seville from Seville, Spain

At that time, the most important indigenous people in the area were the Inca. This had become a great empire, controlling the Andean plateaus of present-day Peru and Bolivia. The capital was in Cuzco.

The victory of the Spanish conquerors over the Inca meant the end of that empire. From then on, it was the Spanish crown who controlled the territory. After a series of civil wars between the conquerors themselves, the Viceroyalty of Peru was created, which would last until the 19th century.

Discovery

The first area that the Spanish occupied in America after the voyages of Christopher Columbus were the islands of the Antilles. From there, they proceeded to explore the coasts of the continent, which they called Tierra Firme. This was divided in 1508 by the Spanish crown into two different parts, for the purpose of its future colonization.

One of those constituencies was Nueva Andalucía. This extended from the east of the Gulf of Urabá to Cabo de la Vela, in the Colombian Guajira. This area was granted to Alonso de Ojeda.

Ojeda landed in present-day Cartagena de Indias, founding the fort of San Sebastían. Having been wounded fighting with the natives, he had to return to Hispaniola, while the fort was under the command of a soldier named Francisco Pizarro.

From Hispaniola, Ojeda sent Martín Fernández de Enciso to reinforce the fort. Among its members was Vasco Nuñez de Balboa. Before reaching his destination, Enciso came across a ship carrying Pizarro, who, along with other members of Ojeda's first expedition, had left San Sebastián.

Pizarro joined Enciso, returning to the continent. When they reached the coast, they founded Santa María la Antigua del Darién.

The discovery of the South Sea

Although Enciso proclaimed himself mayor of the newly created town, a series of maneuvers led to Balboa eventually taking command. With this, he became the head of the settlers on Tierra Firme.

Balboa began to receive news of an empire further south. The conqueror took these rumors seriously and organized an expedition to find him. On September 25, 1513, after crossing the isthmus, the sailors found a great sea, which they christened the South Sea. It was actually the Pacific Ocean.

From that moment on, one of the objectives of the Spaniards was to advance south, seeking that empire rich in gold that they had heard news about.

First attempts to reach Peru

Balboa received the title of Adelantado del Mar del Sur and began to prepare a great expedition. However, he was unable to conclude that project, as his enemies in Spain conspired against him.

The first was Enciso, whom Balboa had deposed as mayor of La Antigua. The crown heeded the complaint and appointed Pedro Arias Dávila as governor of the conquered territories. This, known as Pedrarias, managed to completely eliminate Balboa, who, accused of conspiracy, was executed.

Somewhat later, in 1522, Pascual de Andagoya also tried to organize the search for Birú. However, his expedition ended in complete failure.

Francisco Pizarro's first trip

Francisco Pizarro had established his residence in Panama. From there, in 1523, he began to prepare his first expedition in search of Birú and his gold. To do this, he counted on Diego de Almagro and the priest Hernando de Luque, who had to provide the necessary funding.

Once they had everything ready, Pizarro left for South America on September 13, 1524. Almagro had been looking for more crew and had to leave later to meet his companion.

The problems did not take long to appear, demonstrating the difficulty of the company. Thus, on the Colombian coasts, provisions remained, which, together with the weather, caused the expedition members to weaken.

Waiting for more supplies, they had to stay there for 47 days. The place received the name of Port of Hunger. Thirty crew members died for that reason.

Months later, somewhat recovered, they managed to reach Peru. However, they could not even disembark, as a group of indigenous people prevented it by attacking them with arrows and stones. Pizarro decided to return to Panama.

Pizarro's second trip

In 1526, Pizarro undertook the second of his expeditions. After a year of navigation, they reached San Mateo Bay, from where they entered the Santiago River. The men disembarked and two ships were sent back to Panama to search for more supplies.

However, the journey had been very hard and one of the expedition members took the opportunity to send a request for help to the governor.

It was during this part of the trip, when they were on the Isla del Gallo, that Pizarro had to face the despair of his men. The conqueror, faced with complaints, drew a line in the sand and asked those who wished to continue the journey to cross it and stand by his side. Only 13 crew members did.

With them, called the thirteen of the rooster, Pizarro headed for the Island of Gorgona, where they waited for six months for new reinforcements to arrive.

The new group managed to advance to Santa Clara Island, to a settlement called Tumbes, in northwestern Peru. There, the Spanish saw, for the first time, constructions erected by the Inca Empire.

The walls and remains found seemed to confirm the idea of ​​the wealth of that Empire. Pizarro ordered to return to Panama to seek more resources.

The capitulation of Toledo (1529)

In Panama, Pizarro encountered the governor's refusal to help him embark on a new journey. Given this, the conqueror requested an audience with Carlos V, in Spain.

The monarch and Pizarra met in Toledo. Pizarro recounted his previous trips and gave the king gold, silver and textiles from Peru.

Carlos V not only authorized Pizarro to carry out a new, and greater, expedition, but also appointed him bailiff, governor and captain general of the territory that covered 200 leagues south of Ecuador. In return, the Spanish crown would obtain 20% of the wealth found

Stages

The conquest proper began with the third voyage of Francisco Pizarro. This was eminently terrestrial and ended its confrontation with the Inca Empire.

Situation of the Inca Empire

Before the Spanish conqueror left for Peru, the Incas were experiencing a period of great political instability. In 1527, the Inca Huayna Cápac and his heir had died of a strange disease, which unleashed the struggle to occupy power.

After the death of the Inca, Huáscar assumed the government to be appointed by the orejones of Cuzco. These, a kind of nobility, considered that his experience as vice-ruler made him more valid than his brother Atahualpa. This had become strong in the Quito region.

Huáscar ordered Atahualpa to render him vassalage, receiving a refusal on his part. Both leaders organized their armies and began a civil war that lasted three years. The winner was Atahualpa.

Pizarro's third trip

Pizarro and his men set out from San Mateo Bay in January 1531. When they reached Puná Island, the Spanish learned of the civil war that had faced the Incas and decided to take advantage of the situation.

After leaving the island, the conquerors reached Tumbes and, from there, set course for the Chira Valley. In that place, Pizarro, who was accompanied by 176 men, founded the first city: San Miguel.

March to Cajamarca

Pizarro's next destination, once he reinforced his rear, was Cajamarca. According to the conqueror, the Inca already knew that he had left San Miguel and had even sent him messages to meet.

On November 8, 1532, the expedition began to ascend the mountain range. Pizarro divided his army into two groups: one, the vanguard, led by himself and another under the command of his brother Hernando, who had to cover the rear. However, after just one day of marching, both groups were reunited.

On November 9, Pizarro received some envoys from Atahualpa. They carried llamas as a gift and warned the Spanish that the Inca was five days from Cajamarca.

Two days later, when the conquerors were in Pallaques, a new Inca embassy ratified Atahualpa's intention to meet with them in peace.

Finally, on November 15, the Spanish reached Cajamarca. When they entered the city, they found that Atahualpa had camped half a league from there.

The capture of Atahualpa

Both sides agreed that the meeting would take place on November 16. Atahualpa, once the date had been arranged, ordered that Cajamarca be surrounded by twenty thousand soldiers.

On the chosen day, the Inca of Tahuantinsuyo entered the central square of Cajamarca, escorted by 7000 soldiers. Upon arrival, a Spanish friar approached to give him a Bible, but Atahualpa did not accept it. Likewise, he accused the conquerors of having occupied his territory.

At that moment the capture of the Inca began. In just half an hour, 2,200 deaths were produced, especially by the avalanches that were caused when many of those present tried to flee. Others, especially Inca nobles, were killed by the Spanish.

According to some chroniclers, Pizarro himself received a knife wound when he prevented his men from assassinating Atahualpa. This, defeated, was locked in a building in the city.

The rescue and death of Atahualpa

After the capture, Atahualpa offered Pizarro a large loot in exchange for his release. The conqueror accepted and soon large quantities of gold and silver arrived in Cajamarca, although insufficient for the Spanish.

Given this, the Inca gave the Spanish permission to enter the temple of Pachacamac and the capital, Cuzco, so that they could take whatever riches they wanted.

Despite the agreement, Atahualpa was not released. Taking advantage of the absence of Hernando Pizarro and Hernando Soto, Francisco put the Inca on trial. According to the few chronicles of the time, the trial lasted a whole day and resulted in a sentence to be burned to death.

Before the sentence was served, Atahualpa converted to Christianity to avoid being burned at the stake. Instead, he was executed with the vile club on July 26, 1533.

Almagro's advance

While Pizarro was in Cajamarca, six ships arrived at the port of Manta, in present-day Ecuador. Three of them had left Panama, under the command of Diego de Almagro. Pizarro received news of this arrival in January 1533.

The other three ships were coming from Nicaragua. In total, among all the ships, 150 men arrived to reinforce the Spanish.

With this began a new stage in the conquest, although, after the defeat of the Inca, it was a period of consolidation of the triumph and distribution of the spoils of war.

End of the conquest of Peru

Despite the fact that the north of what had been the Inca Empire was under Spanish hands, there were still some pockets of resistance. Pizarro, to put an end to these groups, began a march towards Cuzco.

During their journey, indigenous troops tried to stop the conquerors, often using guerilla tactics.

Shortly after starting the march, Pizarro reunited with Manco Inca, a brother of Huáscar and, therefore, a relative of the Inca. Their purpose was to enlist their help to enter Cuzco safely. Thanks to this service, Manco Inca was named Inca, although he had to declare himself a vassal of the King of Spain.

On March 23, 1534, Pizarro founded the Spanish city of Cuzco. Later, he dedicated his forces to pacify the entire area. Despite their efforts, until the end of the seventeenth century there were indigenous uprisings against the Spanish.

Consequences

The capital was transferred from Cuzco to Lima, since the first was unsafe for the Spanish. Lima had the advantage of allowing communication with other Spanish dominions, since it was located on the Pacific coast.

Civil war between the conquerors

The taking of Cuzco in 1534 marked the end of the Spanish conquest of Peru. After this, Spanish rule began in the ancient Inca territory.

However, this did not bring peace to the area. Very soon a civil war broke out between Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro for the dominion of the new territories.

At first, it was Pizarro's men who took the victory. Almagro was executed in 1538, without this implying the end of the war.

Diego de Almagro, el Mozo, took over from his father and, in 1541, his supporters assassinated Francisco Pizarro. He immediately proclaimed himself Governor of Peru and rebelled against the authorities appointed by the King of Spain.

Finally, Diego de Almagro el Mozo was defeated in the battle of Chupas. After being tried for treason, he was sentenced to death.

This conflict, which lasted even more in time, was the main cause of the creation of the Viceroyalty. The king, among other things, wanted to put an end to power disputes in the area.

Viceroyalty of Peru

By means of a Royal Certificate, issued in 1534, the Spanish Crown established a Viceroyalty. In addition to trying to consolidate his authority in the area, Carlos I wanted to end the frequent abuses to which the indigenous people were subjected. For this reason, it promulgated the New Laws, with which it created the Royal Court to administer civil and criminal justice.

These laws prohibited the forced labor of the natives, in addition to abolishing hereditary encomiendas.

The capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru was established in Lima and its first Viceroy was Blasco Núñez de Vela.

In its moment of greatest extension, the Viceroyalty of Peru occupied the current Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia and part of Argentina and Chile. The Bourbon Reforms caused it to lose part of those territories in favor of new viceroyalties.

Before that, the Viceroyalty of Peru was the main possession of the Spanish Empire. Its riches, especially the mined minerals, were one of the main sources of profit for the Spanish crown.

At the beginning of the 19th century the rebellions against the metropolis began. These led to a war of independence and, after some years of conflict, the various territories of the Viceroyalty became new countries.

Social organization

One of the characteristics of the Viceroyalty of Peru was the establishment of two Republics: that of the Spanish and that of the Indians. Both were created by the New Laws of 1542.

As in the rest of the Spanish colonies in America, the society of Peru was totally estamental. At the top were the Spanish whites and, a step below, the whites born in the colony. Indigenous and mestizos made up the lower class.

References

1. History of the New World. The Conquest of Peru (I): The End of an Empire. Obtained from historiadelnuevomundo.com
2. EducaRed. The Conquest of Peru. Obtained from educared.fundaciontelefonica.com.pe
3. Icarito. Conquest of Peru. Obtained from icarito.cl
4. Spanish Wars. The Conquest of the Inca Empire. Retrieved from spanishwars.net
5. Heritage History. Spanish Conquest of Peru. Retrieved from heritage-history.com
6. Ballesteros-Gaibrois, Manuel. Francisco Pizarro. Retrieved from britannica.com
7. Cartwright, Mark. Pizarro & the Fall of the Inca Empire. Retrieved from ancient.eu