LATE MIDDLE AGES: HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS, ART - HISTORY - 2025

The Late Middle Ages is a period in history that ranges from the 11th to the 15th century, although there are small differences of opinion among historians about the exact dates. This is the second half within the traditional division of the medieval period, whose first centuries are called the High Middle Ages.

In recent years, most historiographic currents have in turn divided this Late Middle Ages into two parts. A first part is called Plena, which would last until the 13th century; and a second part of crisis and collapse is the one that would include until the fourteenth century.

Capitulation of Granada, Catholic Monarchs and Boabdil (1492)

The taking of Byzantium from the Ottoman Empire in 1453 has traditionally been considered the end of this period. Contrary to the common belief that the Middle Ages was a dark period with little cultural and social relevance, the first centuries of the Baja witnessed numerous changes that would begin to define the Modern Age.

The appearance of the bourgeoisie, the settlement of the borders and the power of the kings or the appearance of the Romanesque and Gothic are some of these relevant events.

Historical summary

At the end of the so-called High Middle Ages, Europe and the surrounding countries find themselves with a structure that no longer resembles that of the ancient Roman Empire.

Feudalism has appeared, the Church has increased its power affecting even kings, and wars have been constant. Meanwhile, much of the Iberian Peninsula remains in the hands of Muslims, and Persians and Ottomans besiege the borders of the Byzantine Empire.

Finally, the year 1000 brings with it the appearance of fear of the end of the world: the so-called millennialism.

Full Middle Ages

The first centuries of the late Middle Ages have received the name of Plena, given the growth that occurred in many matters and the consolidation of the different European states.

Many of the events that occurred at this time are the germ of modern Europe. Even so, we must not lose sight of the existence of a very numerous peasant class that still lived under feudalism in a semi-slavery that obligatorily kept them attached to the land.

Source: Hegodis

Politically it began with a confrontation between the Church and the different kings and emperors. The emperors tried to obtain more autonomy and to stop being subject to the ecclesiastical institutions. Despite the power of the monarchs, on many occasions the papacy had the last word, and even appointed the leaders.

Among the kingdoms that began to be consolidated in this period, the heirs of the Carolingian Empire stand out: France and the Holy Roman Empire.

Meanwhile, the Normans settle in what is now northern France, establishing a powerful duchy. They also begin to lay the foundations for what would be England.

In Spain the reconquest advances, leaving the Muslims practically reduced to the territory of Al-Andalus.

Medieval crisis

Everything achieved during the first centuries of this period is about to disappear due to the great crisis that devastated Europe in the 14th century.

'The triumph of death', by Pieter Bruegel the Elder / Public domain

In the context of the crisis, several factors came together that had a great impact on the economy, demographics and politics. In the 15th century the continent began to recover, giving way to the Modern Age.

According to some authors, the great famines that occurred did so as a consequence of some climatic changes and population growth in previous centuries. In addition, the agriculture of the time still little productive. These great famines were able to reduce the number of inhabitants significantly.

The weakness caused by the lack of food also causes the appearance of epidemics. The best known and most deadly was the Black Death, which hit the continent in several waves and killed between 25 and 50 million people in Europe. The population dropped from 80 million to 30 million in just a decade.

Finally, it is a period in which several civil wars take place between different lords. Although the states were consolidating, there was still a long way to go to make them stable.

Hundred Years War.

Crusades

Another important element in the late Middle Ages are the crusades. It is about the attempts to conquer the so-called Holy Land and, above all, Jerusalem, which was in Muslim hands.

There are as many as eight crusades over the years. The first of these occurs just after the year 1000 and with a great load of religious fanaticism.

The time of the Crusades. Source: Alphonse de Neuville

Regardless of how successful these military expeditions were, they had a great impact on various social, political and economic aspects at the time.

The first repercussion was to reinforce the power of the papacy, capable of granting bulls and other religious benefits to the nobles who participated.

These gentlemen saw two consequences after participating. Many of them squandered part of the wealth of their countries or regions, being at the mercy of their rivals.

However, others managed to strengthen their positions after having achieved victories in battle. Finally, the crusades made religious-military orders appear that would acquire a lot of power in European territory, both political and economic.

Many of these orders were related to others of a monastic nature. For its power, the Order of the Temple or the Germanic Knights stand out.

Siege of Constantinople in 1499. AnonymousUnknown author / Public domain

Main characteristics of the late Middle Ages

Strengthening of the monarchy

Tired of the feudal system that gave so much importance to the landlords and the aristocracy, the monarchs undertake the task of strengthening their power at the expense of theirs. In this way, each time they are reducing the prerogatives of the nobles and increasing theirs.

The growing importance of the cities makes the monarchs rely on the nascent bourgeoisie, which begins to acquire economic power. Parliaments even begin to appear to weaken the nobles.

They also strengthen ties with the Church, in order to increasingly legitimize themselves as absolute power.

Estate society

The social organization of the time was strongly hierarchical, although with a couple of new elements compared to the first feudalism.

In addition, it was an organization based on birth, not being able to leave the social stratum of which the family was.

At the top was the king, with increasing power. Below, the aristocracy and nobility, more limited but still with enormous privileges of all kinds.

Next to these were the clergy. Keep in mind that many of the religious came from noble families.

At the base was the rest of the population. The changes can be seen in the appearance, together with the peasant vassals, of a small number of free peasants: although they had to continue paying the lords, they were free to change their workplace.

The bourgeoisie were initially placed in the lower part of the pyramid, but over the years they became more important.

Economy

In the first centuries, during the Full Middle Ages, the economy improved considerably.

There was a modernization of certain agricultural techniques, which caused an increase in production. Thus, the Norman plows, crop rotation and the water mill appeared.

This led to the existence of a surplus of food, causing the trade to revitalize, since not everything obtained was to be consumed at home. This greater prosperity was translated into a demographic increase.

Although agriculture and livestock were still the bases of the economy of the time, the growing importance of the cities gave rise to a new social class: the bourgeoisie.

In the economic aspect, the dynamics changed somewhat, since it was about artisans or manual workers who were grouped in guilds.

Appearance of the bourgeoisie

As mentioned, the growth of cities and the growing importance of some professions that developed there give rise to important changes.

The boroughs appear: this is the name of the neighborhoods in which artisans and merchants lived and worked. For this reason, those who lived there were known as bourgeois.

The way to gain more influence was to group into guilds that also made cooperation between them easier.

The unions tried to pressure power to achieve improvements in their economic conditions, both in the payment of taxes and in the legislation.

Their importance was such that in some cities they became in charge of the defense: each guild paid its own army of mercenaries and was in charge of defending an area of ​​the city.

Religious and military orders

Some reforms carried out in the monasteries made the Church further strengthen its power, in addition to extending the influence territorially.

Perhaps the most important reform is the Cistercian one, with Saint Bernard of Clairvaux at the head.

Saint Bernard is the protagonist in the appearance of other religious orders of a military nature. They were created for the crusades, but some, like the Order of the Temple, acquired enormous economic power.

At one point they were the ones who loaned the most money to the King of France, and this gave them a lot of influence.

Art

The styles that predominate during this time are markedly religious in nature. These styles had the material and economic support of the bourgeoisie.

The first universities also began to be founded, also linked to the Church.

Romantic style

It is the first artistic style that appears in almost all the countries of Europe. There are some variations depending on the place, but they maintained a series of characteristics that united them.

The main responsible for its dissemination was the monastic order of Cluny, reinforced after the reform that it suffered. The construction of monasteries and churches spread the Romanesque style throughout the continent.

Angouleme Cathedral. Nicrid16 / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)

Among the most important works are the Cathedral of Worms (Germany), the cities of Zamora and Ávila (Spain) or the Cathedral of Angouleme (France).

Gothic

It appears during the maximum development of cities. Its origin is in the north of France, but it is spreading throughout the West from the 13th century.

Within the artistic production in this style, the great cathedrals stand out especially. Faced with the darkness and sobriety of the Romanesque, the Gothic ones are filled with light, rising to a great height.

Notre Dame Cathedral. Example of Gothic architecture.

Image by Markus Naujoks from Pixabay

To build them it was necessary for numerous technical innovations to appear and for the various workers' unions to collaborate.

In addition, other artistic manifestations given in the Gothic, such as sculpture and painting, begin to be independent of architecture.

Some of the most outstanding works are the Cathedral of León, that of Notre Dame de Paris and the Abbey of San Denis.

Historical figures

Next we are going to review some notable characters who lived during the late Middle Ages. From monarchs and nobles, to clergymen, philosophers, sailors, military men, literati and artists.

Henry IV

(1050-1106) Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire between 1084 and 1105. He had a strong fight against the Catholic Church, specifically against Gregory VII.

Saint Thomas of Aquino

Saint Thomas of Aquino. Carlo Crivelli / Public domain

(1224 - 1274) One of the most important theologians, politicians, preachers and philosophers not only of the Middle Ages, but of all history. His great revolution were his theories that Aristotelian thought was not at odds with faith.

Isabel The Catholic

(1451-1504) The Queen of Castile, together with her husband Fernando de Aragón, conquered the Nasrid kingdom of Granada in 1492, putting an end to the Reconquest. It was also, during her reign, the one that granted support to Christopher Columbus on her trips to the Americas.

Joan of Arc

Painting of Joan of Arc on horseback, manuscript of 1504.

(1412 - 1431) French military with an important presence in the Hundred Years War between England and France. She died burned in 1431 when she was captured by the British and the Catholic Church made her a Saint.

Innocent III

(1161-1216) One of the most powerful popes in the history of the Catholic Church. He promoted the crusade to the Holy Land in 1202 and faced the Almohads who ruled Al-Andalus.

Dante Alighieri

Dante in the center of the image. Domenico di Michelino / Public domain

(1265 - 1321) He lived at a time of openness and democratization of the arts and letters. His work Divine Comedy is a classic in which the evolution of medieval to Renaissance thought is captured.

Others

The doctor Averroes.

Monarchy and nobility: Almanzor, Ricardo I of England, Alfonso X the wise, Fernando de Aragón, Boabdil, Teodoro I

Clergy: Urban II, Francisco de Asís, Nicolás de Oresme, Alberto Magno.

Military, conquerors and sailors: Genghis Kan, Marco Polo, Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar.

Arts and science: Averroes, Gonzalo de Berceo, Acipreste de Hita, Leonardo da Vinci, Avicenna, Paracelsus, Roger Bacon.

References

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