CHARLEMAGNE: BIOGRAPHY, EMPIRE, BATTLES, DEATH - ARTE - 2025

Charlemagne (c. 742 - 814) was a monarch of the Carolingian dynasty who reigned over the Franks from 768, then obtained the title in the Lombard lands in 774, and finally managed to be crowned emperor fourteen years before his death.

He was the son of Pepin the Short and was crowned after the death of his father along with his brother Carloman I. The disagreements between the two did not unleash an internal war due to the early death of Carloman, which left Charlemagne as the sole ruler.

Carolus Magnus, circa 1557, by Unknown,, via Wikimedia Commons.

He assumed the role of protector of Rome, which had been acquired by his father, and his close friendship with the Church and its representatives was a fundamental part of his government. In 774, with the defeat of the Lombards in northern Italy, he gained the favor of the Pope.

Charlemagne managed to convert part of the Muslims of Iberia to Catholicism. However, he was expelled from that area by the Basques, for which he established a safety zone near the Pyrenees. In addition, he cemented the Holy Roman-Germanic Empire by achieving control over the territories of Saxony.

Pope Leo II, during the Christmas mass of the year 800, crowned Charlemagne as emperor of the Romans. Constantine VI had died, so Irene of Byzantium ascended in her place. For many a woman on the throne lacked legitimacy, so the idea of ​​a marriage between the heiress and Charlemagne was proposed.

The circumstances were adverse for the union and the dispute triggered an armed confrontation. In 812 Michael I Rangabé recognized Charlemagne as emperor, but did not accept that he be crowned as ruler "of the Romans."

Era of changes

The changes that occurred during the reign of Charlemagne, both politically and culturally, led to this period being baptized as the Carolingian Renaissance. An attempt was made to recover the classical customs and consolidate a Western European culture common to all peoples.

The studies of art, literature and law were very important in the Carolingian Empire, and international communications of the time were improved thanks to the development of medieval Latin as a lingua franca.

Carolingian empire. Blank map of Europe.svg: maix¿? Derivative work: Alphathon, via Wikimedia Commons

The Catholic Church became extremely powerful, as Charlemagne placed his representatives in privileged places within imperial politics. The emperor was known as the "Pater Europeae", that is, father of Europe, because he was the one who managed to unite their nations again.

Background

The Franks converted to Christianity during the 5th century, while Clovis I, one of the members of the Merovingian dynasty, reigned. This lineage had forged one of the most powerful dominions after the separation of the western Roman Empire.

As time went on the Merovingians on the throne became extremely cowardly, so much so that they were given the nickname of lazy kings. Then a shadow began to emerge that managed to amass effective power: the palace stewards.

This situation was exacerbated after the confrontation between two butlers: Pepin the Younger and Waratton. When the former won the contest, he agreed to recognize Theoderico III as king of the Franks, but he imposed himself as steward of the kingdom, thereby achieving royal authority.

However, after confrontations between the descendants of Pepin, his eldest son managed to get the position of successor as steward of the Frankish domains, that young man was Carlos Martel. It is unknown if he was the illegitimate son of Pepin the Younger or if he was the son of his second wife.

Carlos Martel supported Clotario IV at the time of his ascension, but later he knew that he would not need the figure of the king to rule so the Merovingian disappeared from the historical records in a short period of time.

Carolingian Kings

When Carlos Martell died, power was divided between his two sons: Carloman and Pepin the Short, who in order to consolidate their joint government had to recognize Childeric III as king, which made him the last Merovingian king.

In 746 Carloman resigned his duties as palace steward and joined the Church. That made Pepin the only ruler and it was then that he went to Pope Zacharias, who in 749 decided that Carlos Martel's son should be called "king."

A year later Pepin III was elected and later was anointed by the archbishop, since then he was given the title of king. Although Carlos Martel refused to accept the title, his son did not hesitate to obtain it and said that Childeric III was a false king.

In addition, under the papacy of Stephen II, Pepin gained legitimacy from the pontiff, both for himself and his descendants, after coming to his aid against the Lombards and Muslims.

In this way, Pepin the Short guaranteed the succession for his descendants and is considered to have consolidated the Carolingian dynasty.

Biography of Charlemagne

Early years

Karolus or Carolus, had no records about her early life, so her date of birth is unclear. Some sources state that it was around 743, but others place it in 747 or 748.

Similarly, there is controversy as to the place where Charlemagne came into the world: Herstal is one of the likely places, since his father and grandfather came from that area, as did the Merovingian dynasty. Another of Charlemagne's possible birthplaces was Aachen.

He was the eldest son of Pepin III, the Short, and his wife Bertrada de Laon. The names of three of his brothers are known: Carloman, who reigned jointly with him for a time, Gisella and Pipino, who is thought to have died young.

Charlemagne, by François Séraphin Delpech, via Wikimedia Commons.

There are no deeper data about his childhood, since there was no record of his early years, not even by Eginardo, his most successful biographer.

Charlemagne was described as a robust man with a very thick neck, of tall stature. Traditionally it has been said that he was blond, although some consider that this could have been a mistranslation about his gray hair.

Ascent

After the death of Pepin III, which occurred on September 24, 768, both sons of the monarch received portions of the territory that had been governed by their late father. The division was carried out in a similar way to that which had existed between Pepin and his brother Carloman.

The separation of the territories did not mean that two independent kingdoms were created, but that the brothers had to carry out a joint reign while preserving the original dominions bequeathed to them by Pepin the Short.

There are two versions about the ascent of Charlemagne and Carloman, some assert that it occurred on October 9, 768 in Saint Denis, while others assure that the first was sworn in at Noyon, or in Paris, and the second in Soissons.

Charlemagne who was between 20 and 26 years old, received authority over Neustria, northern Austrasia, and western Aquitaine, that is, the outer part of the empire.

Meanwhile, 17-year-old Carloman obtained southern Austrasia, Septimania, eastern Aquitaine, Burgundy, Provence, and Swabia.

Pepin had made sure to guarantee the right of his children thanks to the favor of the Pope, so it was considered that both young people had divine ancestry and, consequently, the power to reign.

Aquitaine rebellion

Background

The Aquitaine region was an area that had been Romanized, located in southwestern France. It had borders with the Basque Country that ran from the Pyrenees to the Ebro River. Since 660, Vasconia and Aquitaine had been united thanks to the alliance between Felix de Aquitania and Lupus I (Otsoa).

Upon Felix's death, Lupus inherited the rights and passed them on to his family by the primogeniture rule.

Decades later Carlos Martel collaborated with Odón by protecting his territory from the Moors who threatened to invade the area. The price he had to pay was the annexation of Aquitaine to the Frankish kingdom and accepting the transition from kingdom to duchy.

Hunaldo and Hatto inherited the rights to Aquitaine, the former allied with Lombardy, while the latter decided to remain loyal to the Franks. After a war that had favorable results for Hunaldo, he abdicated his post and was succeeded by Waiofar, also a supporter of Lombardy.

From 753 Waiofar and Pepin III maintained a confrontation that continued until the death of the first in 768, after which came an apparent calm and consolidation of the government of the Franks. Until Waiofar's son, Hunaldo II, rebelled and the dispute continued.

Charlemagne and Aquitaine

After the arrival of the men of Hunaldo II to Angoulême, there was a meeting between the joint kings, Charlemagne and Carloman. The latter decided to step aside in the conflict and returned to Burgundy.

However, Charlemagne was not going to sacrifice the territories that his ancestors had taken for his kingdom so he went to meet Hunaldo whom he defeated and who then fled to the court of Lupus II of Vasconia.

Then, Charlemagne sent emissaries to the court of the Duke of Vasconia requesting the delivery of the rebels, Lupus II complied quickly and Hunaldo was interned in a convent.

From then on, the leaders who had rebelled in the area became submissive to the authority of Charlemagne and surrendered to this Vasconia and Aquitaine, which finally became part of the French territories.

Relations with Lombardy

During the year 770, Charlemagne made two great political moves that allowed him to isolate his brother and co-regent, with whom he had a rough relationship, since it is said that both wanted to wear the crown alone.

First, he decided to arrange his marriage to the Lombard princess Desiderata, daughter of King Desiderio. In this way he ensured a firm alliance with one of his potential enemies and allies of Carloman.

Later, Charlemagne decided to sign a treaty with Tassilo of Babaria, and thus left his brother surrounded by allied territories.

However, the solid position in which Charlemagne found himself ended abruptly in less than a year, when he decided to disown his wife, Desiderata. The princess returned to the court of her father who was offended.

Charlemagne married a young Swabian woman named Hildegard of Anglachgau, with whom he had vast descendants.

Carloman and Desiderio were allied against Carlomagno, although they could not specify their plans against the common enemy due to the sudden death of Carloman, which forced his family to flee to the court of Lombardy.

Confrontation

Pope Hadrian I, after his ascension, decided to reclaim old territories that once belonged to the Church. For his part, Desiderio advanced towards Rome and was controlling several cities in his path until, finally, he obtained Pentapolis.

In 772 Hadrian decided to go to Charlemagne to remind him of the role assumed by Pepin the Short as protector of Christianity. The ruler decided to follow the line that his father had drawn and came to the aid of Rome.

The following year Charlemagne crossed the Alps and besieged the capital of Lombardy, Pavia. In 774 the city surrendered and they bowed to the authority of Charlemagne, who from then on took control of the Iron Crown.

Desiderius' heir, Adalgiso, fled to Constantinople for help and remained there until his death.

After Charlemagne had proclaimed himself king, the most important lords swore allegiance to him and that made him one of the most powerful nobles in Italy. Although some areas continued to generate uprisings such as Arechis II, they were briefly calmed.

In 792 there was a new uprising by Grimoaldo III, heir to Arechis II, that time they were not subdued and they remained independent ever since.

Expansionism

Charlemagne decided to give his sons a certain degree of power early on. That was why in 781 he gave the old Carloman, who since then became Pepin, the Iron Crown, while he gave the sovereignty of Aquitaine to Luis.

By his orders, both Pipino and Luis were educated according to the customs of their respective dominions. However, Charlemagne kept the effective power of the zones that he had nominally handed over to his sons.

The proximity of the Frankish king with the Church increased, and the roles that the latter had within Carolingian society increased. One of the examples was Charlemagne's order to priests, abbots, and monks to open and direct public schools near religious precincts.

Also during this period, clashes with the Saxon peoples intensified. In addition, two very important women in the life of Charlemagne, his wife Hildelgarda, died in 783 and, shortly after, his mother Bertrada.

That same year, Charlemagne managed to dominate the Saxons, whom he converted to Christianity. He also subjugated the Bavarian territories and faced and dominated the Avars in the territory currently occupied by Austria and Hungary.

Empire

Expansion of the Franks. No machine-readable author provided. Roke ~ commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims)., via Wikimedia Commons

In 799 Pope Leo III was attacked by the Romans, a situation that motivated him to flee in search of refuge to the court of Charlemagne, who had previously demonstrated his commitment to the Catholic Church.

The pontiff requested the protection and assistance of Charlemagne and he decided to offer it in November 800. Then, he went along with his army to the city of Rome, where Leon declared himself innocent of the accusations made against him by his opponents.

That same year, during Christmas mass, Charlemagne was crowned emperor. That title gave the “legitimate” claim to the territories of Constantinople. His role seemed to be that of a restorer of true Roman values, which had been corrupted by Byzantium.

Coronation of Charlemagne, by Friedrich Kaulbach (1822-1903),, via Wikimedia Commons.

At that time Irene was in command of the Eastern Roman Empire. However, being a woman, many thought that she did not have a real clamor. She and her heir, Nicephorus I, filed complaints about Charlemagne's appointment.

Despite this, in Western Europe the rise of the Frankish monarch was seen as something logical and profitable for the entire Empire, which would be raised once more under the control of Charlemagne, very different from the vision of usurper that it presented in the eyes of the eastern Romans.

Debate

One of the great discussions surrounding the appointment of Charlemagne as emperor is whether or not the king knew the intentions of Pope Leo III. Some contemporary sources affirmed that he did not want the title and if he knew that it would be granted, he would have rejected it.

Meanwhile, other historians guarantee that Charlemagne knew perfectly well that he would be crowned and agreed to obtain the title and the power that it conferred on him, but he decided to be humble.

Conflicts with Constantinople

Charlemagne did not use the title of Imperator Romanorum, that is, "emperor of the Romans", but that of Imperator Romanum governmental Imperium, which is translated as "ruling emperor of the Roman Empire."

However, the style he preferred was that of Karolus serenissimus Augustus to Deo coronatus magnus pacificus imperator Romanum governmental imperium, that is, Charles, the most serene Augustus crowned by God, the great, peaceful ruling emperor of the Roman Empire.

The Byzantines did not renounce all their European possessions, they preserved part of Venice, as well as other areas of great importance such as Naples, Brindisi or Reggio. That division remained until 804, when Venice was united to the dominions of the Iron Crown.

The so-called Pax Nicephory lasted until the moment when Venice decided to turn its back on Byzantium. Since then the Nicephorus ships have been plundering the Italian coasts and the confrontations between Charlemagne and the Byzantines continued for about six years.

In 810 Venice decided to re-give its allegiance to Byzantium, which made it easier for the emperors of both portions of the Roman Empire to make peace. In 812 Michael I recognized Charlemagne as emperor, but not "of the Romans."

Last years and the Danes

After dominating Nordalbingia, the borders of Charlemagne came into direct contact with the Danes, with whom there had not been much friction in earlier times.

The curiosity of the Danes increased because stories were told magnifying the riches that could be found in the Frankish lands.

Charlemagne, by A. Bellenger, via Wikimedia Commons.

During the reign of Godofredo (c. 808) the construction of the Danevirke began, which means "Danish work", it was a wall that went from Jutland to Schlewig, it had a height of between 3.6 m and 6 m, in addition, its length was approximately 30 km.

This great wall not only allowed the Danes to isolate and protect their territory from Frankish invasions, but it also gave them the opportunity to penetrate more safely into the nearby territory and frequently attack coastal areas.

Godofredo died at the time of having invaded Friesland and was succeeded by his nephew, or cousin, Hemmings. The new Danish ruler sought peace with Charlemagne and his agreement was established in the Treaty of Heiligen, signed in 811.

Death

Charlemagne died on January 28, 814 in the capital of his Empire, Aachen. Before dying he had ordered that his son Luis the Pious, who served as King of Aquitaine, appear before him in 813 and crowned him joint emperor.

About a week before his death, Charlemagne suffered from pleurisy that left him in a coma and subsequently caused his death. The Carolingian emperor was buried the same day in the cathedral of Aachen.

The accounts of the time affirm that all the dominions of Charlemagne were in a genuine and widespread mourning, in addition to that the fear about the times to come, after such a favorable reign, also spread among the inhabitants.

He was succeeded by his son Luis the Pious and this was the only one who managed to keep intact the territory that Charlemagne had managed to control, since after Luis death, the division between his descendants took place that later ended up forming both France and Germany.

Marriages and children

In the German culture at the time of Charlemagne, there were two types of unions, the strongest was the ecclesiastical in which the marriage received God's blessing, but they could also live as a couple thanks to a kind of legal concubinage known as friedelehe.

In the friedelehe the man did not become the legal custodian of his wife, they were created by consensus between both parties and in the same way it could be dissolved at the request of one of the contracting parties. Charlemagne is thought to have had about 10 relationships between marriages and friedelehes.

Legitimate descent

His first partner was Himiltruda, with her he had two children named Pipino (whose nickname was the Hunchback) and Amaudru, of which there is not much data.

In 770 he married the Lombard princess Desiderata, but in less than a year the union was annulled and he contracted a new marriage with Hildegarda. They were married until she died giving birth to her last child in 783.

Charlemagne and Hildegarda had nine children named Carlos (the Younger), Carlomán, who was later renamed Pipino, Adalhaid, Rotruda, a pair of twins named Lotario and Luis, Bertha, Gisela and Hildegarda.

One year after Hildegard's death, Charlemagne married Fastrada once more and from that relationship two children were born: Theodrada and Hiltruda. Finally, he married Lutgarda in 794, but there were no fruits of the union.

Extramarital offspring

In addition to his wives, Charlemagne had a series of concubines with whom he also had illegitimate children. Around 773 he had a daughter named Adeltruda with Gersuinda. A couple of years later his daughter Rutilda was born, from his relationship with Madelgarda.

Later, Charlemagne had a third illegitimate daughter with Amaltruda de Vienne, the girl's name was Alpaida.

His fourth concubine was Regina, with her he had two men named Drogo and Hugo, both located in important positions, one in the Church and the other in the public administration. With his last concubine, Adelinda, he had two children named Richbod and Teodorico.

Succession

Charlemagne appointed three of his sons in different kingdoms of his domains as emperor. Carlos the Younger was granted Neustria, however he died without issue before his father, in 811.

Pepin took on the Iron Crown, that is, he was the king of the Italian dominions that his father had consolidated.

At the time of his death in 810, Pepin had only had an illegitimate son named Bernardo, who was conferred the royal rank that his father had in life.

However, the heir to the Carolingian empire was Louis I, the Pious, who had previously been appointed as ruler of Aquitaine.

Luis was appointed co-emperor along with his father from shortly before his death. In this way it became clear what the line of succession would be.

government

He ascended to the throne after the death of his father, Pepin the Short, in 768. He did not avoid conflict with his neighbors and, thanks to the efficient use of the kingdom's resources, he achieved victories that expanded the borders of his kingdom, thereby it dominated most of western Europe up to the Elbe.

This is how Charlemagne managed to bring the limits of his power to dimensions only previously reached in the area during the golden age of the Roman Empire.

However, it was not the war and expansion the only thing that the Carolingian king worked on, but also in the reorganization and consolidation of a strong administrative system and an education that allowed a sense of belonging and unity to the different peoples that housed the kingdom.

Bannum

He exercised the principle of the bannum, which consisted of the right to exercise power and command in different aspects. This right could be delegated and so did Charlemagne. It strengthened three components for the application of the bannum:

The first was to defend the defenseless, those members of society who lacked security, such as widows and orphans or the Church.

The second component was the application of jurisdiction for the punishment of violent crimes within the borders of the kingdom.

Finally, the power to recruit men for military service when required by the Government.

Militia

The military strength of the kingdom of Charlemagne differed in certain aspects from that which had been imposed by his predecessors, such as Carlos Martel, who had been founded on the power of the cavalry.

Charlemagne found his success in developing technologies that would enable him to efficiently carry out his sieges. In this way he managed to weaken the enemy forces without losing large amounts of resources and men.

Furthermore, logistics was another element of utmost importance to Charlemagne's military adventures. Resources could be quickly mobilized over great distances thanks to the use of horses as a method of transportation.

Those improvements in the administration and organization of resources were what made it possible for him to manage a territory of the dimensions that the kingdom of the Franks had at the time of the death of the Emperor Charlemagne.

Statue of Charlemagne in front of the Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris, photo by Empoor, via Wikimedia Commons

Education

The general reforms that Charlemagne promoted were the beginning of what some historians dubbed the "Carolingian Renaissance." The emperor showed great interest in the cultivation of knowledge within his borders.

Charlemagne soon understood that the way to achieve the development of the Empire he was trying to build was learning. For this reason he made sure to create public schools, he also encouraged intellectuals and artists to dedicate themselves to various studies and tasks.

There was a huge increase in academics, artists, authors and architects, whose works flourished in all corners of the Empire, especially in Aachen, the city preferred by Charlemagne.

His conquests were also of great influence on the reformist vision of the monarch, thanks to the fact that he obtained contact with other cultures and was able to see how they had developed their knowledge and technologies.

Charlemagne decided to increase the educational budget and disposed of the Church as an educational entity.

Those who could read and write were mostly members of the Catholic Church, so he entrusted them with schools and educational institutions that were created near monasteries and abbeys.

Consequences

Charlemagne was interested in creating a common culture for Western Europeans, who came from very diverse origins, but were then under his control. The spread of Latin as a lingua franca was one of the contributions in this regard.

Among the changes produced by Charlemagne's educational endeavor was the increase in the use of written documents in religious, administrative and legal areas. This was largely due to the increase in the literacy rate in the kingdom.

Many centers for the reproduction of texts were also created in order to be able to keep a greater number of copies of the most important books, such as classics or religious texts. Likewise, the number of bookstores increased significantly.

Charlemagne commissioned his children and grandchildren to be educated by the most prominent teachers who were at his disposal and he himself received lessons in different areas such as rhetoric, dialectics, grammar, arithmetic and even astronomy.

However, the problem that Charlemagne had with the development of his education was the fact of not knowing how to write.

Religion

He decided to maintain the policy initiated with his father with respect to Rome and the Catholic Church, which gave him the legitimacy and support that it could provide to a ruler at the time. Charlemagne himself was a devoted practitioner: he led a life that respected the teachings of religion.

He was in charge of strengthening the structure of the Church and clarifying the duties, powers and responsibilities that the members of different ranks within the ecclesiastical system had to fulfill. Charlemagne knew that the Church would be a good ally to delegate public functions within the kingdom.

He considered it prudent to standardize the liturgy so that its dynamics could easily spread and thus eradicate pagan beliefs from the new areas of the Empire that he controlled. In addition, Charlemagne supported the strengthening of the faith and its moral values ​​within his domains.

Although it has been speculated that the support of the Church was for a simple monetary interest, it is believed that it was in fact genuine and that the sympathy professed by the religious leaders for Charlemagne was genuine, for the actions in favor of the faith that he had taken in his life.

Economy

In Charlemagne's time, what his father had started on the economic plane continued, a transition of the monetary system that developed by displacing gold as the main material to mint money.

Among the reasons that led Charlemagne to eliminate the Byzantine solid, which had been imposed by Constantine I, was his break in trade with Africa and the Middle East, as well as the peace signed with Byzantium, situations that caused a shortage of gold in the Empire.

Charlemagne established the Carolingian pound of silver, which was a unit of weight and value based on the Roman pound. That coin was equivalent to 20 sous and in turn to 240 denarii. The latter was the only currency that was actually minted by the Franks, since the others were only nominal.

King Offa emulated his economic reforms and succeeded in erecting the strongest currency on the continent after the depreciation of the French currency that followed the death of Charlemagne, prompting many countries to adopt the British pound for centuries.

Other

Charlemagne's economic contributions included the standards for recording both income and expenses in the kingdom's accounting notebooks, which created the basic principles of modern accounting.

Another of Charlemagne's actions in the kingdom's economy was the price control that he imposed on some goods, as well as the special taxes that he imposed on others.

Also starting in 814 he issued a law prohibiting usury for going against Christian principles. In that document it was expressly explained that Jewish citizens who deducted money with interest or carried out any commercial activity would be punished by law.

Military life

First incursion into Hispania

The Walies of Huesca, Zaragoza, Gerona and Barcelona sent emissaries to the Diet of Paderborn, to request military aid from the Frankish kingdom in the dispute against Emir Abderramán I of the Omaya Caliphate of Córdoba.

Those Moorish rulers promised the delivery of Zaragoza and homage to Charlemagne, who saw the opportunity to spread Christianity in the Iberian Peninsula.

The Frankish king led the march of the Neustrasian troops through the west of the Pyrenees and, between May and June of the year 778, they took the city of Pamplona. The rest of the forces, composed of Lombards, Australians and Burgundians, entered the peninsula from the east and found themselves in front of Zaragoza.

There Charlemagne received the homage promised by the Muslims, but the ruler of Barcelona, ​​Sulaymán, refused to hand over Zaragoza and took up arms against the Frankish regent.

Sulaymán was captured and, after receiving the news of the uprisings in Saxony, Charlemagne decided to set up camp and return to Frankish territory by the same road. The walls of Pamplona were destroyed and the city razed.

Battle of Roncesvalles

As it passed through Roncesvalles, a narrow road in the western Pyrenees, the rear of the army made up of some 20,000 men was ambushed.

Although the identity of the attackers is unknown, it is presumed that they were Basques from both sides of the Pyrenees, unhappy with the Frankish forces.

Sulaymán was released and many Carolingian knights died, among them Roldán who was the king's nephew and guardian of the Breton Brand. His death is remembered in the famous Cantar de Roldán.

Charlemagne statue in Liège, by Jules Pelcoq, via Wikimedia Commons

Second incursion into Hispania

In 781, Charlemagne reconverted the Duchy of Aquitaine into a kingdom, placing his son Luis, who was only 3 years old, on the throne, who would be under the tutelage of Corso de Tolosa, Duke of Aquitaine and regent.

From that kingdom, the Franks made incursions into the southern Pyrenees, and took Gerona in 785, strengthening control over the Catalan coast. In 795, the cities of Gerona, Urgel, Cardona and Osona formed the Spanish Brand under the Frankish duchy of Septimania.

However, it was not until 797 when the Moorish governor of Barcelona, ​​Zeid, handed over control of the city to the Carolingian Empire, after unsuccessfully rebelling against the Caliphate of Córdoba.

Mediterranean pacification

The Dukes of Genoa and Tuscany, of the kingdom of Lombardy, used large fleets to fight the Saracen pirates who were hitting the ships that sailed between the Italian peninsula and the south of France. Under Charlemagne's orders, they first captured the islands of Sardinia and Corsica and finally, in 799, they controlled the Balearic Islands.

In this way, Charlemagne had control of the coast from Barcelona to the mouth of the Tiber, as well as the maritime routes that ran from the Italian peninsula to the Iberian.

Saxony

The Saxons were a Germanic people located in the vicinity of the North Sea. Charlemagne's first confrontation with the Saxons took place at Paderborn in 772.

Although he was victorious, the Italian campaign two years later presented an impediment to continuing the conquest. However, Charlemagne did not abandon his efforts to control the Saxon lands and returned in 775.

Second campaign

In his second raid he took the fort of Sigisburg, defeated the Angria Saxons again and, later in Eastphalia, he managed to defeat the Germanic groups controlled by Hessi, whom he managed to convert to Christianity.

Later he established several camps in Westphalia, with which he had controlled the Saxon lands almost entirely, although the peace did not last forever. In 776 during riots in the area they razed the Frankish camp at Eresburg.

Although they were subdued by Charlemagne, their leader, Widuskind, escaped to Danish lands.

The Frankish king was charged with creating another camp in Karlstad and called for a Diet to actually integrate the Saxon territory with the rest of the kingdom. Then began mass baptisms in the area.

In 778 another great revolt caused that Charlemagne lost the dominion of a great part of the Saxon lands, although the following year he quickly regained it. So he divided the region into different Catholic missions.

In 780 there were more mass baptisms and the death penalty was imposed for those who did not convert or who secretly continued to practice pagan customs.

Final pacification

Two years later he appointed both Saxon and Frankish counts in the area. In addition, he promulgated a large number of Christian laws. That was not to the liking of the Saxon people who had been calm for two years.

That opportunity was seized by the old leader Widukind, who returned and led a series of uprisings and attacks on churches. Those actions were not taken lightly by Charlemagne, who ordered the deaths of more than 4,500 Saxons, in the famous Verden massacre.

The conflicts continued for a couple of years, until in 804 Widukind agreed to be baptized. The Saxons agreed to renounce their pagan gods and about 10,000 families were relocated by the Frankish kingdom.

Bavaria

In 787, Pope Hadrian I decided to withdraw his support for the Bavarian ruler, who was Charlemagne's cousin. The Franc then made his cousin take the oath of vassalage a second time, which Tasilon III interpreted as an offense.

Soon after, Tasilón tried to ally himself with the Avars against France and a betrayal caused him to end up sentenced to death on behalf of Charlemagne who took his dominions and eliminated the duchy that his cousin had held until that moment.

However, out of consideration for his kinship, Charlemagne decided that his sentence be commuted to confinement in a convent. Tasilón III's wife and children were sentenced with the same penalty.

Then, Bavaria was divided in two counties and happened to the direct control of Charlemagne.

Greedy

A pagan horde settled in the territories of present-day Hungary, known as the Avars, had managed to take control over important cities that belonged to the Carolingian Empire, such as Friuli and Bavaria in 788.

Two years later, Charlemagne marched with his men along the banks of the Danube and was clearing the area of ​​the invaders. However, his reconquest was interrupted by an uprising in Saxony, forcing the emperor to focus on that conflict.

The Frankish king left Pepin, his son and king of the Iron Crown, in charge of the pacification of the territory and he managed to recover Drava and Pannonia. Later, with the assistance of Eric de Friuli, they twice seized the most important fort of the invaders: the Great Avar Ring.

All the wealth they collected from looting the area was sent to Charlemagne and, eventually, realizing that there was little they could do to fight the Franks, the Avars decided to submit and swear allegiance to Charlemagne, in addition to becoming Christians.

Slavs

In 789 the new pagan neighbors of Charlemagne, after his conquests in the territory, were the Slavs. He mobilized the army in an expeditionary campaign across the Elbe with which he succeeded in getting Witzin, the leader of this town in northern Slavia, to submit to his authority.

Later the chief of the velets, Dragonwit, followed Witzin's example and became another loyal ally of Charlemagne. In 795 these towns joined forces with the emperor during the Saxon uprising to quell the rebellion in the area.

Witzin died in the field and his successor Thrasuco later assisted in the conquest of Nordalbingia.

In southern Slavia the most important peoples were those that were settled in Pannonia and Dalmatia.

The Duke of Pannonia, Vojnomir, collaborated with the annexation of the territories to the possessions of Charlemagne and in this way the emperor came to control Croatia, the north of Dalmatia, Slavia and Pannonia.

References

1. Collins, R. (2001). Charlemagne. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
2. Story, J. (2010). Charlemagne: Empire and Society. Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press.
3. Sullivan, R. (2019). Charlemagne - Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: britannica.com.
4. Mark, J. (2019). Charlemagne. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Available at: ancient.eu.
5. En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Charlemagne. Available at: en.wikipedia.org.