CAMPAIGN OF THE BREÑA: ANTECEDENTS, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES - HISTORY - 2025

The Breña campaign, also called the Sierra campaign, was the last stage of the Pacific War. It faced Chile and Peru and Bolivia between 1879 and 1883. The main cause was the dispute over the exploitation of the Antofagasta nitrate deposits. Peru complied with the military treaty signed with the Bolivians and entered the conflict.

The Chilean troops were advancing through Peruvian territory, conquering a large part of the country. In 1881, they managed to take the capital, Lima, causing the flight of President Piérola. However, this did not mean that the war ended.

Andres Avelino Caceres - Source: Pool Jhonnatan Oyola under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International license

In the central highlands of the country, groups of Peruvian soldiers, along with indigenous people and peasants, formed an army to resist the invaders. In command of it was Andrés Avelino Cáceres, a military man who had already defeated the Chileans in Tarapacá.

Although in the first months the men of Cáceres managed to resist, the defeat in the battle of Huamachuco, on July 10, 1883, meant that his troops were almost totally annihilated. After this, Cáceres had no choice but to recognize the Treaty of Ancón, through which Chile managed to annex several territories.

Background

The Pacific War, also known as the Saltpeter War, confronted Chile with the alliance formed by Peru and Bolivia. The clashes took place in the Pacific Ocean, the Atacama desert and in the Peruvian highlands.

The first stage of the conflict took place in the ocean, in the phase called maritime campaign. In it, Chile managed to defeat Peru and land numerous troops on its territory. After that, and despite some important defeat, they occupied Tarapacá, Tacna and Arica. The advantage gained, allowed them to take Lima with little resistance.

However, the conquest of the capital did not end the war. Although a good part of the Peruvian army had been destroyed, there were still officers and troops ready to resist. These congregated in the mountains, from where they stood up for two years.

Occupation of Lima

Lima was taken by Chilean troops after their victories in Chorrillos and Miraflores, in January 1881. This caused the flight of the Peruvian president, Nicolás de Piérola. On May 17 of that same year, Chile appointed Patricio Lynch as head of the occupation government.

The Chileans sought to sign an agreement with Peru that would officially end the conflict. For this reason, they allowed the constitution of a kind of Peruvian government dominated by civilistas, opponents of Piérola.

That government, led by Francisco García Calderón, had its headquarters in La Magdalena, a town near the capital. In practice, this meant the existence of two different governments in the country: that of Piérola, which was in the highlands, and that of Magdalena. Both only agreed to reject the delivery of Tarapacá to the Chileans.

Reorganization in the Peruvian highlands

Some regular troops, together with indigenous groups, organized a resistance force in the highlands of the country. At the command of this army was Andrés A. Cáceres, who had managed to flee from Lima after the occupation to join Piérola.

Intervention of the United States

The United States played an important role in the development of events. In the first place, it had recognized the government of La Magdalena, leaving Pieróla diplomatically isolated.

On the other hand, the US representatives in Lima had informed Lycnh that they did not accept any cession of territories, in addition to demanding that Piérola submit to the government of La Magdalena to unite Peru.

However, the death of US President James Garfield and his replacement by Chester Alan Arthur marked a change in his foreign policy. Thus, in 1882, the United States declared its neutrality in the conflict.

In addition to this, in the interior there was a break between Cáceres and Piérola, since the former recognized the new president of La Magdalena.

Expeditions from Lima

The Chileans sent several expeditions from Lima to fight the troops that were being organized in the mountains. These forces acted with great brutality, which caused the number of resisters to increase.

In the political sphere, a third party appeared in Peru. They were civilians and soldiers who wanted to end the conflict even if that meant giving up territory. One of them was Miguel Iglesias, who was appointed president of the country in 1882. Chile recognized his government.

Causes

The causes of the Breña campaign must be sought in the different views on how to end the conflict. The Peruvians were divided into several factions, each with red lines regarding the concessions to Chile.

Cession of Tarapacá

Although the Chilean army had managed to take Lima, the Peruvians did not accept that the end of the war had the condition of giving up Tarapacá. This was one of the reasons why remnants of the Peruvian army began to reorganize in the non-occupied regions.

Along with these troops many peasants and indigenous people gathered. They tried to defend their lands and families against the abuses committed by the invaders.

Two parallel Peruvian regimes

The resistance in the sierra also had a component of internal struggle for power. After the Chilean conquest, two different governments were organized in Peru. One, based in La Magdalena. The other, with Piérola at the helm, had to hide in the mountains.

At the end of 1881, Chile arrested the president of the government of La Magdalena. Before his arrest, he passed command to Lizardo Montero. Cáceres proceeded to recognize the latter, which caused his break with Piérola.

US support

The La Magdalena government had devised a plan to avoid the cession of territories to Chile. Thus, they intended to grant Credit Industriel, a company formed by Peruvian bondholders, the exploitation of the wealth of Tarapacá.

For this to be possible, the United States had to block the Chilean request and create a protectorate in the area.

At first, the Americans were in favor of this solution. This support gave morale to the resistance of the sierra.

Consequences

By mid-1882, Peruvians had divided over how to end the conflict. Some defended to resist no matter the consequences, others, instead, just wanted the war to end.

In this last group was Miguel Iglesias, who launched the well-known cry of Montan. He stated that it was time to sign peace. Iglesias was proclaimed president on December 25, 1882. Shortly after, the Chileans recognized his government and began peace talks.

While these talks were taking place, Cáceres fought his last battle, that of Huamachuco. This took place on July 10, 1883. Despite starting with an advantage, the victory was finally for the Chileans. Cáceres was forced to flee to Jauja.

Treaty of Ancón

Chile and Peru signed peace on October 20, 1883, through the Treaty of Ancón. Before, the battle of Pachía had meant the end of the last active guerrillas in Tacna.

The document established the end of the conflict. Chile annexed Tarapacá, in addition to the right to occupy Tacna and Arica for 10 years.

In addition, the Chileans remained in possession of the guano deposits on the Peruvian coast until the debts of Peru's creditors were covered or until they were exhausted.

Cáceres did not agree with the clauses of that treaty, but he did not have military forces powerful enough to confront the Chileans. Instead, he turned against Iglesias.

Given the situation created, Cáceres had no choice but to recognize the Treaty of Ancón as a fait accompli. However, in 1884, he took up arms against the Iglesias government. The civil war lasted until 1885 and ended with the victory of the so-called “Brujo de los Andes”.

References

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