CONIFEROUS FOREST: CHARACTERISTICS, FLORA, FAUNA, CLIMATE, LOCATION - ENVIRONMENT - 2025

The coniferous forests are vegetation with trees class gymnosperms conifers that grow in cold areas, temperate and subtropical. Conifers are woody plants with seeds that do not form fruit and that have resins in their wood.

There are basically three types of coniferous forests in the world, the most extensive being the boreal forest or taiga. On the other hand there are the temperate coniferous forest and the subtropical coniferous forest.

Coniferous forest. Source: Eric Guinther (talk • contribs) / CC BY-SA (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)

These forests are characterized by having a less complex structure than both temperate and tropical angiosperm forests. There are also mixed forests, where conifers coexist with species of angiosperms.

These forests develop in cold, temperate, and subtropical climates, both in the northern and southern hemispheres. Therefore, they are subjected to a marked seasonality, varying the duration of the seasons according to latitude.

Characteristics of the coniferous forest

As they are species that must survive extreme climates, conifers have a series of characteristics:

Gymnosperms

They are a class of the gymnosperms group, which are seed plants that, unlike angiosperms, do not produce fruits. They are called conifers because in most cases their female reproduction structures have a conical shape, called cones or strobili.

In other cases these strobili are round in shape, as in cypresses and are called galbules and in most species, the trees show a cone shape. They are woody plants, trees or shrubs, with resinous wood and simple leaves like needles, scales or narrow-bladed.

Evergreen

Their evergreen leaves allow them to make the most of the short vegetative season, which is when they can start working on photosynthesis without having to wait for a new leaf to emerge, as is the case with deciduous species.

In this way, a coniferous plant leaf can last up to seven years, with which its tops are progressively renewed. This is how they resist very cold winters and dry summers.

Plant structure

Picea abis, species of conifer. Source: böhringer friedrich / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)

Conifers form low complexity forests, being more evident in the taiga or boreal forest, where a single layer of trees with a very sparse understory can be observed. This understory is made up of some bushes and abundant lichens and mosses.

In other cases, a second layer of trees is formed, composed of species of angiosperms (broadleaf or broad-leaved plants). Likewise, there are juvenile individuals of the upper canopy species.

The upper canopy can reach up to 75 m high south of the taiga, where the cold climate is less extreme. Further north, on the border with the tundra, the height of the canopy decreases (40-50 m), due to low temperatures and freezing winter winds.

On the other hand, although temperate coniferous forests do not develop much greater structural complexity, they do present a more structured understory. These forests present an arboreal stratum, rarely two and an understory with a diversity of herbs, shrubs, mosses, lichens and ferns.

Color

Its very dark colored leaves favor the absorption and use of light in short summers, to take full advantage of photosynthesis.

Resins and antifreeze

Coniferous leaves have a special resin that prevents water loss. In addition, its outer cells have a kind of natural antifreeze that prevents them from freezing at low temperatures.

Types of coniferous forests

Worldwide there are three basic types of coniferous forests, defined by the climatic zone where they develop according to latitude and altitude.

Boreal forest or taiga

Taiga in Canada. Source: peupleloup / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)

It is in the northernmost latitudes, on the edge of the tree line. It is characterized by forming large areas made up of little diversity of species and with little vertical stratification.

Temperate coniferous forest

It is found in the temperate climate zones of both hemispheres, and has a greater diversity of species and structural complexity. In this latitudinal strip (latitudes 23 ° and 66 °) in the northern hemisphere, coniferous forests are also formed in a Mediterranean climate.

Subtropical coniferous forest

It is established on the border between the temperate and tropical zones, or in high mountain tropical zones. They even include tropical species in the understory or even climbers and epiphytes. The diversity is greater than in the other types of coniferous forests.

Flora

About 670 species of conifers are recognized worldwide, divided into at least 6 families throughout the planet. However, its greatest diversity occurs in temperate and cold zones of both hemispheres.

In the coniferous forests of the northern hemisphere the species of the families Pinaceae, Cupressaceae, Taxaceae and Sciadopityaceae predominate. The Podocarpaceae family is also found in tropical areas of this hemisphere.

While in the southern hemisphere the Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae predominate, and depending on the latitude and more specific geographic location, the specific species vary.

Boreal forest or taiga

Pinaceae species predominate, especially genera such as Larix, Pinus, Picea and Abies. Of the genus Larix (larch trees) there are about 13 species in taiga forests such as the European larch (Larix decidua) and in Siberia the Siberian larch (Larix sibirica).

Likewise, there are other species such as Abies sibirica, Pinus sibirica and Picea obovata, typical of the so-called dark taiga. While in the light taiga there are Larix species that lose their leaves in autumn, such as Larix decidua, Larix cajanderi and Larix gmelinii.

Forest of Abies sibirica. Source: Фахразиев Альфир Магафурьянович / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)

For its part, in the boreal forest of North America there are black fir (Picea mariana) and white fir (Picea glauca).

Temperate coniferous forest

Pinus species abound in the northern hemisphere, such as Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), wild pine (Pinus sylvestris) and American white pine (Pinus strobus). Also species of other genera such as cedars (Cedrus spp.), And firs (Abies spp.) Such as Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii).

Pseudotsuga menziesii forest. Source: Cathy from USA / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)

In the same way, other families of conifers are present such as the cupresáceas with the cypresses (Cupressus spp.) And the junipers and junipers (Juniperus spp.). Likewise, the redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) are cupresáceas, which form forests in the valleys of California and can reach up to 115 m in height and 8 m in diameter.

Also, there are temperate coniferous forests in swampy areas, with species of the genus Taxodium such as the cypress of the marshes (Taxodium distichum) in the area of ​​the Mississippi River.

In the temperate coniferous forests of the southern hemisphere, species of the families Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae predominate. Araucariaceae includes three genera, which are Araucaria, Agathis and Wollemia, while Podocarpaceae has 19 genera.

Araucarias in Chile. Source: CARLOS TEIXIDOR CADENAS / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)

Various large Araucaria species are dominant in the coniferous forests of Chile and Argentina. Such as the pehuén or araucano pine (Araucaria araucana) and the Paraná pine (Araucaria angustifolia).

In Oceania there are Araucaria bidwillii, Araucaria columnaris, and Araucaria cunninghamii, among others. And the tallest native tree (50 m high) in the southern American cone is the Patagonian larch (Fitzroya cupressoide).

On the other hand, in the tropics, forest vegetation formations dominated by conifers are very scarce and are restricted to Podocarpaceae species.

Fauna

North Hemisphere

In the coniferous forests of this hemisphere, the gradient of animal diversity ranges from low to high from taiga to temperate forests. In these forests inhabit the wolf (Canis lupus) and the bear (Ursus americanus and Ursus arctos), the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), the elk (Alces alces) and the fox (Vulpes vulpes).

Omnivorous diet black bear Ursus americanus, common in North America. Source: Rivera0997, from Wikimedia Commons In temperate zones there are wild boar (S us scrofa), red squirrel (Scurius vulgaris), red deer (Cervus elaphus), lynx (Lynx spp.) And numerous species of birds. In the forests of Eastern Europe it is common to find the European bison (Bison bonasus).

In North America inhabit the beaver (Castor canadensis), the Canadian otter (Lontra canadensis) and the puma (Puma concolor). For its part, Mexico is home to the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and the arboreal anteater (Tamandua mexicana).

Odocoileus virginianus. Source: Rafael Marrero Reiley

Southern hemisphere

The temperate coniferous forests of Chile are home to species such as the chingue or skunk (Conepatus chinga), the puma and the huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus). In addition, there are the small pudu deer (Pudu pudu), the colocolo wild cat (Felis colocola) and the wink (Leopardus guigna).

Huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus). Source: Fotogalilea / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)

The forests of Australia and other areas of Oceania are home to a variety of marsupials, rodents and birds. For example, the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) in the forests of this island in the south of mainland Australia.

Sarcophilus harrisii

Weather

The taiga

The boreal forest or taiga grows in the cold and humid climate with short hot and dry summers of the latitudes near the polar desert. Here the average annual temperatures are around -3 to -8 ºC with temperatures above 10 ºC in summer.

While rainfall is variable from 150 to 1,000 mm per year. Due to the moisture present in the soil, due to low evaporation and low temperatures, permafrost (frozen subsoil layer) is formed.

Temperate coniferous forest

These forests develop in temperate climates where the average temperature is around 18ºC and rainfall varies between 400 and 2,000 mm per year. These are generally mountainous areas, subject to a seasonal climate, with four defined seasons (spring, summer, autumn and winter).

Summers in these regions are hot and humid, and in Mediterranean areas drier with an average temperature above 10 ºC. The most humid temperate coniferous forests are located in California, in small areas of deep valleys.

The forests in Chile and Argentina, as well as those in New Zealand and Australia, are also very humid. In coastal areas, the marine influence causes more temperate winters, while in continental areas they are more rigorous.

Subtropical coniferous forest

These forests develop in a temperate and dry climate, with average temperatures of 18 ºC, on the border between the temperate and tropical zones. In tropical mountainous areas, at altitudes above 1,000 meters above sea level, precipitation is greater than 1,500 mm per year and average temperatures are 22 ºC.

Location in the world

The taiga

The taiga or boreal forest extends in a wide strip to the north of the northern hemisphere, both in North America and in Eurasia. It covers Alaska (USA), the Yukon (Canada), northern Europe and Asia, with the largest extensions in Siberia.

Temperate coniferous forest

It stretches discontinuously from the west coast of North America to the east coast, and south across the Rocky Mountains. From there it enters Mexico through the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Sierra Madre Oriental. In California they range from 30 to 600 meters above sea level on the coastline.

Then it is located in Eurasia also discontinuously, from the Iberian Peninsula and Scotland to the Far East, including Japan and North Africa, in the Mediterranean area. In the Himalayas, these forests are found at 3,000 and 3,500 meters above sea level, covering India, Pakistan and Nepal.

In the southern hemisphere they are located in the center and south of Chile and southwest of Argentina, north of Uruguay, east of Paraguay, and south of Brazil. While in Oceania they are located in Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand and Tasmania.

Subtropical coniferous forest

There are coniferous forests in the subtropical areas of Mexico, the coasts of Honduras and Nicaragua, and the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Bahamas, Bermuda). For its part, in Asia they develop in subtropical areas of India (Himalayas), the Philippines and Sumatra.

Similarly, there are small areas of mixed coniferous (podocarp) forests in the high mountains of the tropical Andes.

Coniferous forests in Mexico

In Mexico both temperate and subtropical coniferous forests grow, and there is the greatest diversity of species of the genus Pinus. This genus of conifers has 110 species worldwide and in Mexico there are 47 of them.

In total in Mexico there are 95 species of conifers representing 14% of the world diversity of this group. Pine forests are found in almost all the mountains of Mexico, with species such as the white ocote (Pinus montezumae) and the Chinese pine (Pinus leiophylla).

These coniferous forests occupy large areas of the north of the country in mountainous areas, especially in the Sierra Madre Occidental. In this mountain range, in addition to pine forests, there are small patches of ayarín forests (species of the genera Picea and Psuedotsuga).

Oyamel forests (Abies religious) in Mexico. Source: Tim & Annette / Copyrighted free use

While in the Sierra Madre del Sur there are patches of cupresaceous forest that in Mexico they call cedars, such as Cupressus benthami and Cupressus arizonica. In these forests there is also the white cedar (Cupressus lindleyi) with a diameter of 3 m and more than 200 years old.

Also in these mountains are the so-called oyamel forests (Abies religious), coexisting with the ocote (Pinus spp.) And the fir (Abies duranguensis). Likewise, Juniperus species (Cupressaceae) are found in Mexico, forming the táscate forests, as these species are called.

Coniferous forests in Colombia

Colombia is in the middle of the tropical zone and as such the diversity of native conifers is very scarce, being restricted to the Podocarpaceae family. The species of this family were abundant in the high Andean mountains, in Cundinamarca, Quindío and in Nariño.

Likewise, they were found in the departments of Huila, Norte de Santander, Cesar and in Magdalena in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, but their populations have been reduced due to their exploitation for wood. In Colombia there are species of three genera of podocarp, Decussocarpus, Podocarpus and Prumnopitys.

Decussocarpus rospigliosii. Source: Daderot / CC0, wikimedia commons

Of all the species, only Decussocarpus rospigliosii forms coniferous forests proper between 1800-3000 meters above sea level, above oak forests (Quercus humboldtii). The rest of the podocarp species are part of the Andean tropical humid forests dominated by angiosperms.

Coniferous forests in Spain

The coniferous forest ecoregion of the Iberian Peninsula is one of the richest in flora in Europe, extending through various mountain ranges. Species such as Salzmann pine (Pinus nigra subsp. Salzmannii), maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) are found here.

Coniferous forest in Spain. Source: No machine-readable author provided. Miguel303xm ~ commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims). / CC BY-SA (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)

There are also coastal stone pine forests (Pinus pinea) that develop stabilizing the sand dunes in southwestern Spain. In addition, there are scattered remnants of Pinus sylvestris and Juniperus thurifera forests in rocky sites on the southern slopes of Cantabria that have biogeographical value.

In the northeast of Spain, in sandstone substrates in coastal mountain ranges, forests of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) and mixed forests of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) and holly (Quercus coccifera) predominate.

These are home to a rich fauna, with more than 150 species of birds and others in danger of extinction such as the Pyrenean goat (Capra pyrenaica victoriae) and the Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca adalberti).

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