CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY: PERIODS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS - HISTORY - 2024

Classical antiquity is the name used by historians to designate the period of time in which the Greco-Roman culture flourished. Although some authors consider it to be too Eurocentric a term, most historiographic currents the term is generally accepted.

The geographical area in which this period took place was the Mediterranean basin and the Near East. Regarding the chronological framework, its beginning is marked in the V century BC. C., with the beginning of the so-called century of Pericles, while its end is dated in the V century d. C., when the decline of the Roman Empire began.

Map of the Roman Empire in 117 AD. C. Uricm55

The Greek and Roman civilizations, despite differing in many ways, had some common characteristics. The Romans, for example, borrowed most of their mythology from the Greeks. Something similar happened with art, with an undeniable stylistic resemblance in some periods.

Regarding the specific characteristics, the conception of Greece as the mother of democracy or its different philosophical schools can be highlighted. In Rome, for its part, the political organization tended almost always towards the monarchy, despite a period in which the republic was in force.

Periods and characteristics

As noted, Classical Antiquity corresponds to the period in which Greek and Roman civilizations dominated Europe and part of the Near East. Temporarily, it is about a time that lasted about 1000 years, from the 5th century BC. C. to the V century d. C.

Historians tend to contrast this historical stage with the so-called Late Antiquity, a period of transition between Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages in which a good part of the Greco-Roman heritage was lost.

Classic Greece

The first period of classical antiquity began in 510 BC. C., when a rebellion broke out led by the Athenians against Hipias, the ruling tyrant. Aided by troops from Sparta, they managed to overthrow the king, although they saw how the Spartans tried to control the city.

Finally, in 508 a. C., the leader placed by Sparta was overthrown thanks to reforms considered the basis of Athenian democracy.

Another important event of this stage was the war between the Greeks and the Persians, the so-called medical wars. After 50 years of conflict, Athens became the most important polis in Greece.

That was the moment of greatest splendor during this stage. As a result, Athens experienced a time of great cultural boom in all areas.

Although Sparta, first, and Thebes, later, ended the Athenian hegemony, it was the powerful Kingdom of Macedonia that led classical Greece to dominate more territory. First with the conquests of Philip II, who managed to conquer the entire Hellenic territory.

Alexander the Great and Hephaestion, by Andrea Camassei, via Wikimedia Commons

Later, his son Alexander the Great, expanded his dominions to Egypt, Persia, Central Asia and India. His death, in 323 a. C. and the consequent fragmentation of his empire marked the end of this period.

This period was one of the most brilliant in terms of philosophy. Thinkers like Aristotle, Plato and their Academy or members of the Stoic school transformed the way of seeing the world, something that influenced all subsequent civilizations.

Hellenistic period (330 to 146 BC)

Alexander's conquests gave way to the Hellenistic period. Greek culture was no longer confined to the peninsula and nearby islands and spread to other regions of the world. In addition, contact with civilizations such as the Persian, Egyptian or Indian led to an exchange of knowledge and customs.

It was a time of cultural and scientific splendor. The Library of Alexandria became the focus of knowledge around the world, and Hellenic scientists made important contributions in all areas.

This stage concluded with the conquest of Greece by the new rising power: Rome. This happened in 146 BC. C.

Roman Republic (5th - 1st centuries BC)

The Roman monarchy was overthrown in 509 BC. C., giving way to the republican period. This lasted almost 500 years, when a series of civil confrontations led to the arrival of the imperial period.

The Roman Republic transformed what was only a dominant region in Lazio into the main power of the Mediterranean. This process was not abrupt, but developed little by little through a series of conquests during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. C.

After defeating the towns closest to Lazio, the Romans faced the Carthaginians (Punic Wars) and the Macedonians. The Roman victory and the consequent conquest of Greece and Asia Minor greatly expanded their dominions.

This increase in power and territories was accompanied by great political instability and an increase in social discontent in Rome. These factors led to various conspiracies, civil wars, and the establishment of the first triumvirate. Finally, the Roman Republic became an empire in the second half of the 1st century BC. C.

Roman Empire (1st century BC to 5th century AD)

Historians have not reached an agreement on the exact date that marked the beginning of the Roman Empire. In fact, the real differences between the last republican stage and the first imperial one were quite slight.

In this way, the first dynasty to occupy the imperial crown, Julio-Claudia, maintained the institutions of the Republic, but endowing themselves with extraordinary powers. The state itself kept the name of Res publica, a name that it maintained until the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

The territories controlled by Rome were already enormous. His power extended to Hispania, part of North Africa, Gaul, Greece, Iliria, Syria, Judea and Asia Minor. Its first conquest as an empire was Egypt, carried out by Octavian.

On the other hand, the culture of the Roman Empire was mainly Hellenistic. Likewise, it picked up oriental influences and, over time, ended up adopting Christianity. From the 3rd century AD. C., the power of Rome began to decline.

Political organization

Map of Ancient Greece

During this period, Greece did not exist as a unitary political state. In reality, various polis (city-states) with different characteristics lived together.

However, all historians agree on what was the main contribution of the Greeks in the political sphere: democracy. Although the philosophical theories varied between the request of a wise government to that of an aristocratic one, Athens ended up adopting a participatory system of political management.

Athenian democracy was not universal. Participation in political life was restricted to certain social classes and women could not participate. However, it was a major departure from traditional autocratic regimes.

Rome, for its part, was established as an aristocratic state from its inception. Even during the so-called republican era, the elites did not lose power. The plebs and the middle classes had, at times, their representatives in the Senate, but they could never really reach the highest positions of power.

Already in imperial times, Roman leaders ruled despotically many times. At the end of the period, the weakness of the emperors allowed the Germanic tribes to gain control of the Empire.

Religion

Artist's rendering of the statue of Zeus at Olympia (1572). It is inaccurate in some details: according to historical sources Zeus carried a statuette of Victoria in his right hand and a scepter with a seated bird in his left hand.

The Greek religion was polytheistic, with a large number of its own gods and others adopted from other cultures and Hellenized. The Greek deities had a behavior very similar to that of humans, with their intrigues, passions and struggles for power.

At the head of the Greek pantheon was Zeus, who headed the so-called Olympian gods, that is, those who lived on Mount Olympus.

The Romans adopted all the Greek gods and changed their names. In addition, they incorporated some domestic or family deities, composed of the spirits of their ancestors, the gods of the home or those of the pantry.

Society

Greek society had a fairly rigid hierarchy, although there were differences depending on the polis and the time.

In general terms, the existence of three different groups can be pointed out. The first of them were citizens, a legal status that was reached only by birth. Among their privileges was being the only ones who could own land and participate in politics.

Second in the social structure were non-citizens. In most cases they were foreigners and, although they had some rights, they could not participate in politics or own property.

On the last step of the pyramid were the slaves. In some polis they were owned by the citizens, while in others they belonged to the state.

For its part, in Rome society was structured on two bases: wealth and social rights. Thus, there were free men of various categories and slaves. The status of citizens, the highest among free men, was reserved for patricians and commoners.

The former were the elite of Rome and presumed to be descendants of their founders. They were divided by family, formed by those who had a common ancestor. They were the owners of the lands and the only ones with political rights.

Finally, commoners only had civil and not political rights. Normally they were dedicated to crafts or trade, although they could own small tracts of land.

Economy

At first, the Greek polis based their economy on agriculture. Over time, due to factors such as population growth or the scarcity of arable land, they began to practice other activities. Among these, the trade and the elaboration of handicrafts.

The Greeks began using coins around the 5th century BC. C., although without abandoning barter as the main trading system. This began as an exchange of products between the different polis, but very soon it spread to other territories.

Thus, Athens became the largest commercial power in the Mediterranean, with ships leaving for Asia, the Balkans, the Black Sea or Egypt.

The evolution of the Roman economy was similar. At the beginning, agriculture and livestock were the most important activities. The cultivation of the vine, cereals or the olive was developed in large areas of land belonging to a few landowners. The expansion of its territory also allowed it to take advantage of the supply of cereals from Egypt, Carthage or Sicily.

At the end of the republican era, a serious problem appeared: the population had multiplied in such a way that it was necessary to import food and other products from distant lands. Trade became increasingly important, favored by the excellent communications network that the Romans had built.

Art

One of the highlights of classical antiquity was its artistic production. To this day, a multitude of his works are still preserved in all fields, from architecture to sculpture.

In general, Greeks and Romans based their creations on seeking a harmonious and balanced type of beauty. Whether in architecture, painting or sculpture, a perfect proportion was always sought.

The architecture of the Greeks and the Romans shared a good part of its characteristics. In the case of the former, his most important works were temples, public buildings, open air theaters or mausoleums. Throughout time they used three different styles: the Doric, the Ionic and the Corinthian.

The Romans picked up the Greek influence in this field and built huge temples, triumphal arches, circuses, forums or aqueducts, among other types of constructions.

As for sculpture, the two civilizations reached a great level of perfection. In most cases, they represented highly idealized human figures (although they represented gods). Some of the most important Greek artists were Myron, Polykleitos and Phidias.

In addition to continuing the Greek style, the Romans included among their works numerous busts, all endowed with great realism.

Philosophy of the classical period

Democritus statue

One of the greatest contributions of the Greeks was philosophy. From the period of classical Greece, thinkers appeared who asked the most fundamental questions about existence.

The Greek philosophers, moreover, did not limit themselves to trying to unravel reality, human thought or nature, but also developed theories about the best type of government or about how the universe was organized.

Among the most important philosophers Socrates, Plato, Democritus, Anaxagoras or Aristotle stood out. The influence of the latter was maintained during the centuries after classical antiquity.

Roman law

If the Greeks were the fathers of philosophy, the Romans were the fathers of modern law. The so-called Roman law is still the basis of many legal systems today.

Its legal system covered all fields, from criminal to administrative, passing through civil. The general principles of Roman law were collected in the Corpus Juris Civilis, commissioned by the Emperor Justinian.

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