7 CAUSES OF THE INDEPENDENCE OF MEXICO (INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL) - HISTORY - 2025

The causes of the independence of Mexico were of various types: economic, political, social, and were marked by events such as the Querétaro conspiracy. Likewise, the events that occurred thousands of kilometers away in Spain were important.

The Mexican War of Independence was an armed conflict that ended with the end of the Spanish Empire's dominance over the territory of New Spain in 1821.

The areas that today comprise Mexico, Central America, and a portion of the United States fell into the hands of the Spanish in August 1521 when Hernán Cortés and his army of conquerors overthrew the Aztec Empire. This event gave rise to more than 3 centuries of colonial rule that decimated the native populations.

One of the first revolts against the Spanish government was led by Martín Cortés Malintzin, the illegitimate son of Hernán Cortés and La Malinche, his interpreter and concubine. The event is now known as the Conspiracy of Martín Cortés and it showed an incipient disagreement with some of the Spanish laws.

In the years leading up to the war for independence, most plans to end Spanish control were created by New World-born children of Spaniards or Creoles. These were considered socially lower than native Europeans in the stratified caste system that prevailed at the time.

However, the objective of this group excluded indigenous Mexicans and mestizos, who lacked even the most basic political and civil rights.

What were the causes of the independence of Mexico?

During the 18th century, economic expansion and a certain degree of political relaxation led the Spanish colonies to generate expectations of autonomy. These thoughts were prompted by the revolutions in the United States in 1776, in France in 1789, and in Haiti in 1804.

Social stratification

The marked social stratification in New Spain also began to generate unrest in the population and contributed to generating tensions directed towards the revolution.

Creoles considered themselves subject to the Spanish crown and the doctrines of the Roman Apostolic Church.

Some of the causes of such instability in the new Spain were the economic problems of the Spanish crown, the innumerable prohibitions, the tobacconists and the large estates, the tax system, the wealth of the clergy and the dispossession of indigenous land.

The new society had been established on uneven foundations. People who were born in Spain to Spanish parents were the ones who had the power and the money.

The role of social classes

The criollos were sons and daughters of peninsulares who were born in the "new world," so they did not consider themselves Spanish and could not hold any public office.

Indians, mestizos and castes, lacking rights and forced to work hard, had to pay high taxes by the Spanish crown and had very few opportunities.

Blacks represented slavery and were forced to work in extreme ways.

Uprisings in Europe

Napoleon Bonaparte

In Europe, Napoleon Bonaparte began the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in 1808. When French troops entered Madrid, King Charles IV was forced to abdicate and Napoleon appointed his brother José Bonaparte as the new king.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the occupation of Spain by Napoleon led to the outbreak of revolts throughout Spanish America. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla - the father of Mexican independence - launched the Mexican rebellion with his "cry of Dolores," and his populist army came close to capturing the Mexican capital.

Defeated at Calderón in January 1811, he fled north, but was captured and executed. However, he was followed by other peasant leaders, such as José María Morelos y Pavón, Mariano Matamoros and Vicente Guerrero.

Uncertainty towards the Spanish crown

Ferdinand VII

In certain regions, groups loyal to the crown declared Fernando VII, son of Carlos IV, as the new monarch. These news generated uncertainty about New Spain when they were not sure of recognizing Fernando VII as the legitimate leader of the colony.

Viceroy José de Iturrigaray agrees together with the Creoles to the creation of a board for the government of the colony.

However, the Spaniards living in the colony took power fearing the consequences that the Creoles could bring to power. After this event, a Spanish ruler known as Pedro de Garibay is put at the head of the colony against the wishes of the Creoles.

The salons

The classrooms were important because they gave people a place to talk and discuss ideas.

In the classrooms, people began to discuss the ideas of independence. These discussions would allow the revolution to take root with thousands of people from the population.

Closeness to the United States

Due to Mexico's close proximity to the United States, ideas of independence could easily flow between the two countries.

Additionally, the Mexican people were able to see the success of the American Revolution up close. It seems that Mexico's geographic proximity to the United States and the salons played a key role in sparking the revolution.

The independence process

The conspiracy of Querétaro and the cry of Dolores

Dolores Square.

By 1809 there was relative calm in Mexico City, but in other regions of the viceroyalty many groups began to stir. Some trade reforms and low agricultural production led to an economic slowdown in 1809 and a famine in 1810.

In the Querétaro area, a group of dissatisfied creoles decides to employ the natives and mestizo peasants in order to gain control over the Spanish. Among the conspiratorial groups was the parish of Dolores in eastern Guanajuato.

The rebellion began when Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla formally declared opposition to the bad government on September 16, 1810.

Hidalgo said:

«My friends and compatriots: neither the king nor the tributes exist any longer: we have borne this shameful tax, which only suits slaves, for three centuries as a sign of tyranny and servitude, a terrible stain. The moment of our freedom has come, the hour of our freedom, and if you recognize its great value, you will help me defend it from the ambition of tyrants. Only a few hours left. Before you see me at the head of the men who pride themselves on being free, I invite you to fulfill this obligation, and without homeland or freedom we will always be a great distance from true happiness. The cause is holy and God will protect it. Long live the Virgin of Guadalupe! Long live America for which we are going to fight! "

Hidalgo campaign

General_Francisco_Javier_Venegas.

The new viceroy, Francisco Javier Venegas, together with General Félix María Calleja managed to make Hidalgo's armies fall back.

In January 1811, Calleja achieved a victory over Hidalgo on the outskirts of Guadalajara and forced the rebels to take refuge in the north. In these provinces, Hidalgo and the leaders of the insurgency found temporary shelter under groups that had also declared their rebellion.

In Nuevo Santander, the armies mutinied against the governor when they were ordered to march towards San Luis de Postosí to fight the insurgents.

Similarly, the governor of Coahuila, Manuel Antonio Cordero y Bustamante, suffered the desertion of 700 troops in January 1811 when he faced an army of rebels of about 8,000 individuals.

In Texas, Governor Manuel Salcedo was overthrown on January 22, 1811 by Juan Bautista de las Casas along with troops who were stationed in San Antonio.

Under the orders of Viceroy Venegas, General Joaquín de Arredondo carried out the invasion of Nuevo Santander in February 1811. On March 21 of the same year, officer Ignacio Elizondo ambushed the insurgent leaders Ignacio Allende, Father Hidalgo and their commanders in his way to Monclova in Coahuila.

With this fact, the provinces in the northeast portion returned to the hand of the Spanish Empire. In August 1813, Arredondo defeated the rebels at the Battle of Medina thereby securing the territory of Texas for the Spanish crown.

Jose Maria Morelos

José_María_Morelos.

After the execution of Hidalgo y Allende, José María Morelos y Pavón assumed the leadership of the independence cause. Under his guidance the occupation of the cities of Oaxaca and Acapulco was achieved.

In 1813, Morelos convened the Congress of Chilpancingo in an effort to bring together representatives from different groups. On November 6 of that year, the first official document of Mexican independence known as the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of North America was written.

In 1815, Morelos was captured by royal forces at the Battle of Temalaca and driven to Mexico City. On November 27 of that year, he was brought before an inquisitor court that declared him a heretic. By orders of the already Viceroy, Félix María Callejas, Morelos is executed on December 22, 1815.

Guerrilla warfare

From here, it was General Manuel Mier y Terán who inherited the leadership of the movement after the death of Morelos, but was unable to unify the forces.

Many independent and diverse guerrilla forces in motives and loyalties continued to exist throughout the provinces including Texas.

This dissension was what allowed the forces of Viceroy Félix María Calleja to sequentially defeat or at least keep the movement that was fragmented under control.

Juan Ruiz de Apodaca as new Viceroy

The next Viceroy, Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, took a more conciliatory position and offered amnesty to the rebels who lay down their arms, and this proved to be a more forceful tool than the repression carried out by Calleja.

This implied that until 1820, any organized movement for Mexican independence remained quiet except for the action of Javier Mina and others based in Texas.

Motivated by events in Spain that forced King Ferdinand VII to restore elements of a constitutional government, the former crown commander Agustín Iturbide proceeded to form a junta with the revolutionary Vicente Guerrero to plan the independence of Mexico in 1821.

This was supported mainly by Church officials whose powers and wealth were threatened by the reforms that were being carried out in Spain and who saw the maintenance of their local power as the only way out.

Iguala Plan

Iguala Plan - Source: rm porrua (www.rmporrua.com), undefined

Instead of a war and supported by other liberal and conservative factions in Mexico, on February 24, 1821 the Plan of Iguala was formulated. This was named after the town in which the meeting took place and in it reforms were described to create a constitutional monarchy with the Bourbons as those with the right to the throne, but with limited power.

If this is rejected, an emperor of the territory would be appointed. Also known as the Plan, Army or Government of the Three Guarantees, it provided protection of the Catholic faith and rights and property to the clergy. Equality between peninsular citizens and Creoles was also contemplated.

Many factions, including the older and inactive revolutionaries, creole landowners, and government officials began to join the movement. The position of Emperor was offered to Fernando VII on the condition that he was the occupant of the throne and supported the idea of ​​a Mexican constitution.

Viceroy Apodaca was offered the position of Chairman of the board for the implementation of the new government, but he declared against it and resigned. The New Viceroy delegate of Spain, Juan de O'Donoju, upon evaluating the situation, agreed to accept the Plan of Iguala, which would result in the Treaty of Cordova signed on August 24, 1821.

A junta appointed Iturbide as Admiral and Grand General. After O'Donoju's death and the formation of a split congress of delegates from the Crown, Republicans and Imperialists, Iturbide was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico by the army and the congress was dissolved.

References

1. History.com. STRUGGLE FOR MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE. history.com.

2. Countrystudies.us. Wars of Independence, 1810-21. countrystudies.us.

3. Cary, Diana Serra. HistoryNet. Mexican War of Independence: Father Miguel Hidalgo's Revolt. December 10, 2000. historynet.com.

4. MexicanHistory.org. The war for Independence 1810-1821. mexicanhistory.org.

5. Tigro, Erin. Study.com. Mexican War of Independence: Summary & Timeline. study.com.

6. Texas A&M University. Mexican Independence. tamu.edu.