SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES - HISTORY - 2024

The Second Industrial Revolution was a historical period characterized by the great socio-economic changes that occurred between 1850-1870 and 1914. These transformations were caused by technical progress in the chemical, oil, electrical and metallurgical industries, as well as the appearance inventions such as the telephone or the telegraph.

As there is no type of break with the First Industrial Revolution, this second is usually considered a phase of the previous one. The main difference was the speed of the changes, which strengthened and perfected what had already been created in the First Revolution.

Telegraph patented by Samuel Morse. Source: Automatic Telegraph Reciever under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license

In addition to things related to industry and technological advances, the society of the time was also profoundly transformed. Thus, new methods of work appeared, creating, on the one hand, a new type of mercantilism and monopoly capitalism and, on the other, workers' organizations that tried to improve the conditions of the proletariat.

Another novel aspect was the consolidation of new powers. The First Industrial Revolution had mainly affected Great Britain, but the Second spread to other countries, such as Germany, Japan or the United States. For this reason, some experts speak of a first globalization.

characteristics

Experts date the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution to the mid-19th century, between 1850 and 1870, depending on the source. Its characteristics include the accelerated development of various aspects within the chemical, electrical, oil and steel industries.

In addition, there were other very important developments in the field of transport and communications. All these transformations were reflected in society, which changed significantly.

Substitution of iron for steel

At the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution, iron continued to be the most widely used metal. In 1878, a system was invented to exploit the deposits of iron rich in phosphorus, which until then had been considered very complicated.

This metal, which during the First Industrial Revolution was used almost exclusively on the railroad, found new applications. Thus, it began to be used in construction (Eiffel Tower, train stations, bridges…) as in armament.

However, little by little, it was replaced by steel, an alloy of iron itself with a small amount of carbon. Its price had limited use until, in 1856, the appearance of the Bessemer converter made its production cheaper.

One of the industries that got the most out of it was weaponry, and fully steel-clad battleships or submarines began to be built.

Transportation revolution

The price of transport experienced a great decrease at this time. This allowed commerce to expand its field of action, connecting the different parts of the planet more economically. Likewise, it favored generalized population migrations.

The most widely used means of transport continued to be the railroad, which also had a spectacular evolution. As an example, Europe went from having only 4,000 kilometers of railway line in 1840 to 100,000 km in 1870.

Equally notable was the development of maritime transport. The old sailing ships were giving way to steamships, built with iron hulls, first, and steel, later. The required crew decreased and the cost of each trip was reduced more and more.

Electricity and oil

Another characteristic that marked this period was the appearance of two important energy sources: electricity and oil. The changes they entailed affected the whole of society, from industry to transportation.

Automatic machinery

The introduction of new machinery led to the emergence of new types of industry. These machines helped automate production, improving productivity and reducing costs. On the other hand, they generated an increase in unemployment, since less labor was needed.

Taylorism and Fordism

The effect of the machines was not the only thing that revolutionized the industry. Along with automation, new working methods also appeared, such as the one created by Frederick Taylor. This specialized the work of each worker within the assembly line, measuring the times required for each task.

That system was adapted, and expanded, by Henry Ford, owner of the Ford Motors Company. In its factories the first Ford T. was manufactured using an assembly line. One of the novelties was the assumption by the employer that the workers should have a fair salary, which would allow them, at least, to be able to buy one of their cars.

According to Ford, those salaries were going to allow consumption to increase and the workers not to join the revolutionary workers' organizations.

Advances in the scientific field

Unlike what happened in the First Industrial Revolution, which only occurred in Great Britain, in the Second it affected many more countries. This meant the emergence of new powers, driven by the growth of their industry. Among them are the United States, Germany or Japan.

Causes

Experts point out that the causes of this Second Revolution were varied. New sources of energy, advances in metallurgy, and profits made from the colonies were some of the most important.

Population increase

From the 18th century there was a considerable increase in population. The end of the plague epidemics and the development of agriculture were factors that allowed this demographic growth. To this must be added the decrease in mortality caused by wars or famine.

Agrarian revolution

On the one hand, the improvement of agricultural techniques allowed an increase in production. On the other hand, the demand for workers by the industry caused a population transfer from the countryside to the city.

Bourgeois revolution

In some countries there were authentic revolutions led by the bourgeoisie, while in another, this social class benefited from political reforms that granted them some rights previously limited to the nobility.

This bourgeoisie, closely related to commerce and industry, came to reach political power in many nations.

Consequences

The Second Industrial Revolution affected all social aspects. Its positive consequences were increased production, scientific advances or improved transport. On the negative side, one can point to the creation of a mass of industrial workers who lived in subhuman conditions.

Movement of man through the machine

The First Industrial Revolution had been characterized by the need to increase the workforce. However, in the Second the effect was the opposite. The continuous automation of tasks led to a significant increase in unemployment and, therefore, in poverty.

Transport as the engine of the revolution

The railroad is considered the great engine of the Industrial Revolution. Not only did its construction provide thousands of jobs, but it also led to an increase in demand for the necessary materials, something beneficial for the industry.

On the other hand, the boiler-powered ship meant a transformation in commerce, allowing goods to be transported more quickly to remote locations.

Large companies appear

Unlike what had happened until then, the new industrial techniques promoted during this Second Revolution made it necessary to create larger companies. This also led to the population being concentrated in the cities, since that was where the industry was located.

Population growth and large migrations

Population growth between the 18th and 19th centuries was spectacular: the population went from 208 million to 403 million.

This great demographic change, together with the urbanization of the population and the increase in unemployment caused by automation and new agricultural techniques, caused a massive migration to countries in the process of industrialization.

To the above, we must add the improvement of transport, both land and sea. The cost of each trip was reduced, something that allowed many to emigrate to other areas of the planet. It is estimated that between 1850 and 1940, some 55 million Europeans were displaced. Its main destination was the United States.

Monopoly capitalism

The second half of the 18th century saw the emergence of a new type of capitalism, called monopolist. This was developed in a context of growth of the productive forces.

Capital tended to centralize and production was concentrated by forming monopolies created by agreements between entrepreneurs. These monopolies acquired great strength, being able to determine the sales conditions of their products, setting their prices.

Despite this, the competition did not disappear completely, as these monopoly companies competed harshly with each other.

Neomercantilism

The Second Industrial Revolution also transformed commercial activity, giving rise to what has become known as neomercantilism. This began in Germany and France, quickly spreading to Russia, the United States, and England.

At that industrial stage, no country was totally self-sufficient, especially due to the need for raw materials. For that reason, they all tried to create their own colonial empire, which would provide them with those materials and, at the same time, were markets for manufactured products.

This neomercantilism, therefore, led to a new colonialism based on capitalism. Its main characteristic was the participation of large transnational companies in the colonies, where they maintained enclaves from which to extract raw materials.

Birth of the industrial proletariat

As noted above, during this period cities significantly increased their population. The new inhabitants, attracted by industrial work, had to live in very poor conditions, as well as with an almost total lack of labor rights.

The widespread exploitation ended up causing the workers to organize, forming socialist or anarchist unions. Strikes and demonstrations were the main weapons to try to improve their working conditions.

Energy sources

One of the factors that most contributed to transforming society was the discovery of new sources of energy: electricity and oil. These offered much better results than those used up to that time and were essential for the emergence of more modern technologies.

Electricity

Although several researchers had already begun to investigate the subject, it was Thomas Alva Edison who popularized its use and, above all, brought to the world a revolutionary invention: the light bulb. This simple product, introduced in 1879, served to light the streets, improving the quality of life throughout the planet.

Apart from the light bulb, the development of electricity was decisive for many other inventions. Its use was applied to many areas, from machinery to communications. Likewise, it was used as a source of energy for means of transport such as the tram or the subway.

Petroleum

The most common use of oil up to that time was lighting, but the real revolution came with the invention of the internal combustion engine, which used that product as a source of energy.

The first to introduce such an engine was Nikolaus Otto, in 1876, ushering in the motorized era. A year later, gasoline replaced natural gas as the fuel for that engine thanks to research by Karl Benz. Soon after, Rudolf Diesel created a petroleum engine for locomotives and shipping.

These inventions were soon applied to industry, driving the expansion of automatic machines.

Technological advances

The number of inventions during this time was enormous. Among the most important are the steam engine, the plane, the telephone or the light bulb.

Explosion engine

As mentioned above, the internal combustion engine, or internal combustion engine, brought about great changes in all areas, from industrial to transportation. It replaced steam, using oil.

Light bulb

It is estimated that Edison made more than 3,000 attempts before making the first truly functional incandescent light bulb. It was on January 27, 1879, when he finally succeeded in creating a high-strength filament, using platinum, but it only lasted a few hours.

The car

It is not known for sure who invented the automobile, although it is known that Daimler and Benz devised gasoline cars around 1880. Later, Levassor applied the principle of internal combustion to a car.

Those early models were obviously very rudimentary, and it took several years before they became viable as a regular means of transportation.

Another figure related to the automobile was Henry Ford, a businessman who introduced the chain manufacture of this product, in addition to making it cheaper so that it was available to any worker.

Airplane

Although the human being had fantasized about the idea of ​​being able to fly for centuries, it was not until the Second Industrial Revolution that the dream began to come true.

At the end of the 19th century, some pioneers began to test their inventions, although it was the Wright brothers who, in 1903, took the credit for making the first flight in a motorized plane.

Years later, in 1910, Bleriot crossed the English Channel in a monoplane and, just a year later, Prier flew between Paris and London nonstop. In a few years, this medium was consolidated as one of the most important transports.

Radio

One of the inventions that reached a greater impact was the radio. Its authorship caused a true patent war between Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi, since both presented their devices with just months of each other. It was the last one who managed to get the patent.

The phone

Something similar happened with the invention of the telephone. Graham Bell has been considered its inventor for many years, but in 2002, the United States Congress recognized that its true creator had been Antonio Meucci.

Movie theater

If there was an invention that revolutionized the world of culture and entertainment, it was the cinematograph.

Its beginnings date back to 1895, when the Lumiere brothers made the first public demonstration of their device.

Advances in the scientific field

Apart from technological inventions, science also lived through a time of splendor. Darwin, for example, published his theory of the evolution of species, which represented a great scientific leap in knowledge about humans.

On the other hand, Louis Pasteur created a process to preserve food that helped the population not suffer from poisoning due to poor maintenance of food.

In the field of medicine, Robert Cosme discovered the bacteria that cause tuberculosis and Bayer, in 1897, invented aspirin. Many diseases could be controlled or reduced, increasing the average life span and reducing mortality.

Themes of interest

Main inventions of the Second Industrial Revolution.

Industrial Revolution in Spain.

Industrial Revolution in Mexico.

Inventions of the First Industrial Revolution.

Industrial society.

References

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8. Industrial Revolution Reference Library. The Second Phase Of The Industrial Revolution: 1850–1940. Retrieved from encyclopedia.com