REVOLUTIONS OF 1848: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES - HISTORY - 2025

The Revolutions of 1848, also known as the Spring of the Peoples, were a set of insurrections that occurred in various European countries during that year. Historically, they are part of the so-called Bourgeois Revolutions, which also include the waves of 1820 and 1830.

Although there were different reasons why different social groups participated in the revolutions, the common goal was to end Restoration Europe, the political system established by the Congress of Vienna and which sought to return to absolutist structures after the defeat of Napoleon.

Map of Europe with the most important revolutions of 1848 - Source: Dahn

France was the first country in which revolution broke out in 1848. Later, insurrections spread throughout most of Central Europe and Italy. In some of these areas, nationalism was very present in the minds of the revolutionaries.

Despite the fact that these revolutions ended in failure, their consequences were felt in all countries. The first, the end of absolutism, since the monarchs understood that they needed the support of, at least, the bourgeoisie to stay in power. On the other hand, the labor movements appeared as political subjects.

Causes

Barricade on rue Soufflot, an 1848 painting by Horace Vernet. The pantheon is shown in the background.

After defeating Napoleon Bonaparte, the European powers reached an agreement to return the continent to the situation it was in before the French Revolution. Thus, in the Congress of Vienna, held between 1814 and 1815, the Europe of the Restoration was born: the return to absolutism against liberal and enlightened ideas.

However, something had changed on the continent. Revolutionary ideals had spread and, in addition, a nationalism was beginning to appear that threatened the great central empires.

Soon a series of revolutionary waves began that reached a good part of Europe and that received the name of Liberal Revolutions.

The first wave took place in 1820, followed by another in 1830 in which liberal ideas were joined by nationalist sentiment.

In 1848, beginning with France, another series of uprisings shook the continent. On this occasion, along with the old protagonists, a new social class born of industrialization also participated: the proletariat.

Economic crisis

The bad economic situation that several European countries were going through was one of the causes of the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions. Apart from the gentry and the nobility, the rest of the population barely had the means to survive. In addition, the measures taken by the absolutist governments worsened the standard of living of the majority.

Three specific events contributed to further aggravate the situation. The first was a serious plague that affected potato crops. The plague especially affected Ireland, causing the period called Great Famine.

On the other hand, two of the most important economic sectors in England went into crisis in 1847: industry and commerce. Many mercantile companies went bankrupt, increasing unemployment figures. The same happened with many factories, leaving the workers without means of survival.

The last of the crises took place in France. There, several factors coincided that prevented traders from exporting their production. The commercial bourgeoisie was affected, which caused it to join the revolutionaries. To this must be added the famine that the population was going through due to several bad harvests.

Emergence of the proletariat

The increasing industrialization of European countries caused a transformation in society. Previously, the bourgeoisie and the nobility had been the two social classes that faced each other, one to preserve their privileges and the other to acquire those they considered they deserved.

With the industry a new social class appeared. The old lower classes went on to become the proletariat, the workers in those factories. Since the factory owners were bourgeois, a new focus of conflict appeared, as the workers blamed them for the dire working conditions and the lack of rights.

Over time, the workers began to organize. In 1830 some of the first groups of this type were born in France.

However, it was in 1848 when the labor movement became more important. That year, in England, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published the Communist Manifesto.

Fight against absolutism

Although the revolutions of 1830 had caused some concessions on the part of the absolute monarchies, these were insufficient for a good part of the population. The revolutions of 1848 became a confrontation between the liberal and the absolutist systems.

In this way, the revolutionaries of that year incorporated many demands to democratize societies. Among them, the introduction of universal suffrage, the expansion of individual rights and, in many cases, the republic as a system of government.

Nationalism

Nationalism had been a factor of resistance during the Napoleonic invasions. After the Congress of Vienna, which tried to create a very conservative map of the continent, the nationalist positions did not disappear, but became stronger.

In some cases, such as Germany and Italy, movements of this type were fighting for unification. In others, such as Greece or some of the territories of Central Europe, for independence.

Major revolutions

The revolutions of 1848 began, again in France. They soon spread to other parts of Europe, affecting Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, and other territories. The speed of this expansion is due, in part, to advances in communications.

France

Luis Felipe de Orleans, monarch at that time, had favored the upper bourgeoisie to the point that it was in favor of the Old Regime. This social class had no intention of sharing part of its privileges with the petty bourgeoisie or with the workers.

It was the latter, along with the students, who started the revolution. This began in Paris, on February 22. During the following days, the revolutionaries received the support of the National Guard.

On the 24th of that same month, the king abdicated. The following day, the Second Republic was proclaimed. Among the laws passed were universal suffrage (male only) and freedom of the press and association. Socialist sympathizers participated in the government of the Second Republic, something unprecedented so far.

After a few months, faced with radicalization on the part of the revolutionaries, the petty bourgeoisie chose to ally itself with the high bourgeoisie. As of June, more than 1,500 people were executed.

After those days of repression and violence, the French opted for a more moderate regime. Napoleon's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, was elected president. In 1852, following the path taken by his uncle, he declared himself emperor and eliminated the laws that emerged from the Revolution.

German states

The former Holy German Empire had become the German Confederation in the early 19th century. In 1848, the revolutions that broke out within it had a marked nationalist accent, with many groups struggling to unify the territories.

In that part of the continent, the revolutions took place in March. As a result of these insurrections, liberal governments were formed in the different territories that made up the Confederation.

The Federal Parliament met on March 10 to begin drafting a Constitution. Ten days later, the same Parliament asked the different states to hold elections to elect a Constituent Congress.

In Prussia, for its part, riots also broke out in the streets. This led to its National Assembly beginning to prepare a Constitution for the kingdom.

The Frankfurt Parliament drew up its own Constitution, which was approved the following year. This text spoke of a unified Germany governed by a constitutional monarchy. However, none of the ruling princes in the Confederacy accepted this Magna Carta.

The first reaction of the absolutists took place in Prussia. There, in 1850, the army put an end to the liberal movements. Soon, that example spread throughout the Confederacy.

Habsburg states

Nationalism was also an important factor in the revolutions that developed in the Austrian Empire. This, made up of diverse territories, had no choice but to change some of its policies. The same happened in other areas governed by the Habsburgs, such as northern Italy or Bohemia.

Unlike what was happening in other parts of the continent, the bourgeoisie hardly existed in these states. For this reason, the one who started the revolts was the middle and lower aristocracy. Within this there were many intellectual followers of the ideas of the Enlightenment.

Among the most important insurrections that took place in this area are the proclamation of independence from Hungary, although it was again annexed by the Austrians. Similarly, Bohemia managed to increase its autonomy, which was responded by Austria with a bombardment of Prague.

The revolutions that took place in the Empire caused Metternich to lose his position. Ferdinand I, the emperor, had to convene an Assembly to draft a Constitution.

The Liberals, as noted, were joined by Hungarian and Czech nationalists, who succeeded in increasing their own legal powers.

Italian states

As in the German Confederation, the revolutions in the Italian states combined the liberal cause with the desire for the unification of the territories.

Similarly, in the Austrian-controlled areas of the Italian peninsula, these insurrections also turned into a liberation movement.

At first, the revolutionaries forced the King of Naples to create a Parliament, expel the Austrians from Lombardy-Venice, and succeeded in getting the King of Piedmont to approve a Constitution.

Pope Pius IX himself, who ruled over Rome, had to flee the city harassed by Mazzini. This ended up proclaiming a republic.

All of these achievements only lasted a few months. Austria sent a powerful army that was defeating the revolutionaries. In Rome, for her part, it was Louis Napoleon who came to the aid of the Pope. Only in Piedmont, with King Victor Emmanuel, the liberal system remained in force.

Consequences

The revolutions of 1848 closed the series of liberal and bourgeois revolutionary waves that had begun in 1820 and continued in 1830. Despite not achieving most of their objectives, their consequences were very important in the following years: liberalism and constitutionalism were already part of the mentality of the population.

Among the achievements that the revolutionaries did achieve are the introduction of universal suffrage in France, the liberal constitutions of Prussia and Piedmont, and the repeal of the feudal system for the peasants of the Austrian Empire.

On the other hand, these revolutions were part of the processes of unification of Germany and Italy. The first was to be developed with Prussia as the center, while the second had Piedmont as the driving force.

End of Restoration Europe

Without a doubt, the most important consequence of the revolutions of 1848 was that they marked the end of the Europe of Restoration designed at the Congress of Vienna.

The rebellions had made it clear that the monarchy was being highly questioned by the population. Many supporters of the republic even appeared as a system of government associated with greater democracy.

The so-called Spring of the Peoples forced the European kings to abdicate or, if they wanted to retain power, give up part of their absolute powers. Thus, they had to accept constitutions and parliaments that limited their prerogatives.

Apart from all this, another event that demonstrated the change of time was the replacement of the ideologue of Restoration Europe, Metternich, by Bismarck, who would give way to another way of doing politics.

Spirit of 48

As noted, one of the achievements of the 1848 revolutions was that it led to a change in mentality in part of the population. Some historians call the series of ideas created from those events "spirit of 48"

Among the points that shaped that spirit were the importance that began to be given to science and progress, but also the cult of the people and romantic nationalism.

Social changes

Different sectors of society participated in the revolutions. The repercussions on each of them were different.

The petty bourgeoisie, for example, was abandoning the revolutionary movements. For its members, the fear that the workers would achieve their goals outweighed more than continuing to fight for their own. In this way, this sector of the bourgeoisie ended up allying itself with the upper bourgeoisie, although they maintained their political differences.

For its part, the proletariat began to consider itself a class apart. On many occasions they had the problem of not being well organized, but over time they created trade unions and political parties.

The workers of the field, finally had seen their intention to get rid of the feudal system, which tied them to the owners of the lands. In many countries, peasants who were able to acquire land became part of the conservative sectors of society.

References

1. Department of Education of the Basque Government. The Revolutions of 1848. Obtained from hiru.eus
2. Domenech, Oscar. Causes and consequences of the 1848 revolution. Obtained from unprofesor.com
3. Muñoz Fernández, Víctor. The not so negative consequences of the 1848 Revolutions. Retrieved from redhistoria.com
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6. History Extra. 1848: the year of revolutions. Retrieved from historyextra.com
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