REVOLUTION OF THE COMMONERS: CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES, CHARACTERS - HISTORY - 2025

The revolution of the comuneros was an armed insurrection in the Virreina de Nueva Granada. The uprising took place in 1781, when the Spanish Crown enacted a series of laws that led to a rise in taxes for the inhabitants of the colony.

At first, the revolt was carried out by the most disadvantaged social classes, but it soon expanded and had the support of the wealthiest creoles. The latter, in addition to being affected by the rise in rates, also suffered from the problem of being relegated in many social spheres compared to those who arrived from Spain.

José Antonio Galán - Source: Domingo Moreno Otero, undefined

The community members were about to reach Bogotá. The viceregal government, to avoid this, agreed to negotiate with them and signed the so-called Capitulations of Zipaquirá, in which they accepted parts of the demands of the rebels. That agreement did not convince, however, the insurgents, who continued with the revolt.

When the situation calmed down a bit, the Viceroyalty authorities ignored the capitulations and captured the revolutionary leaders. However, this insurrection is considered one of the first movements that took place until independence was achieved.

Causes

The arrival of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne resulted in a series of reforms throughout his Empire. The Spanish economic situation made them seek to obtain greater profitability from their territories in America.

In addition to that circumstance, the Viceroyalty was going through moments of considerable tension. This had caused some insurrections prior to the revolution of the comuneros, such as the one that occurred in Vélez in 1740 or the uprising led by Juan Ascencio Perdomo in Santafé in 1767.

Taxes

The main cause of the revolution of the comuneros was the imposition of new taxes and the rise of those that were already in force. The tax reforms imposed by the Spanish Crown caused the population of New Granada to have to bear a greater tax burden.

Rising rates have reduced their options to expand. The increase in taxes such as that of the alcabala, the tobacconists of tobacco and brandy or that of the Armada de Barlovento left them in a worse economic situation.

Not only these owners were affected. Day laborers, artisans and peasants also suffered the increase. In their case, that added to the inequality they already suffered.

The Crown created an administrative figure to ensure the collection of taxes: the Regent Visitor. The one chosen for New Granada was Juan Francisco Gutiérrez de Piñeres. One of his first measures was to recover the tax to the Armada de Barlovento, which was levied on sales.

Social division between Creole and peninsular

The reforms promoted by the Bourbons also sought to restore power to the metropolis. The new laws made that the Creoles were replaced by peninsular Spaniards in the positions of greater responsibility.

Consequences

The revolution broke out on March 16, 1781 in the town of El Socorro (Santander). The complaints against the new taxes were general and, in that environment, Manuela Beltrán, a cigar maker, went to the tobacconist and uprooted and broke the edict that announced the rate increase and described how to pay them.

That gesture was seconded by the inhabitants of the town. Shouting "Long live the king" and "Death to the bad government", the citizens confronted the mayor stating that they were not going to pay any of the contributions.

The revolt soon spread to nearby towns, such as San Gil or Charalá. The definitive impulse was given by the adhesion of the wealthy classes of the region, also affected by taxes.

The first leaders of the protest were Juan Francisco Berbeo and José Antonio Galán, who organized a meeting called “El Común”. Some 20,000 people began to march towards Bogotá, threatening the viceregal authorities.

The capitulations of Zipaquirá

Near Vélez, the revolutionaries ran into a small military column sent from Santafé to stop them. However, the government troops were unable to stop the march of the comuneros. Meanwhile, Gutiérrez de Piñeres fled to Cartagena de Indias to seek the protection of the Viceroy.

Given the proximity of the community members, the Santafé authorities created a negotiating commission. In this they were the mayor Eustaquio Galavís and the archbishop Antonio Caballero y Góngora. The offer was to suspend the tax reform in exchange for not taking the capital.

On May 26, 1781, negotiations began. The community members presented a document with 36 conditions or capitulations. Among the economic conditions were the abolition and reduction of taxes, the freedom of crops or the free trade of tobacco.

In addition, the document also contained measures such as the improvement of roads, that those born in America could opt for high positions, the return of the salt flats to the indigenous people, and other social and ecclesiastical reforms.

According to historians, the discussions were very tense, but in the end both sides reached an agreement.

Division among the rebels

Some historians think that the Capitulations of Zipaquirá, the name given to the agreement, constitute the first political statute of New Granada and that it was a first step towards detaching itself from the Spanish Crown. Others, on the other hand, point out that the document left untouched such important matters as indigenous servitude.

The signing of the Capitulations had a negative effect on the community army. While its members of the upper classes accept what was negotiated, the less favored showed their distrust.

At the head of this second sector was José Antonio Galán, who refused to lay down his arms and sought to expand support among the workers on the farms near the Magdalena River.

Cancellation of capitulations

Time showed that Galán's mistrust had plenty of reasons. Once the risk of the revolutionaries taking the capital was averted, the Viceroy ignored the capitulations and sent a battalion to quell the revolt.

The comuneros were defeated in early 1782. José Antonio Galán and the rest of the leaders were arrested and executed in Santafé de Bogotá. Galán's body was dismembered and distributed among the main cities as an example for those who dared to rebel.

Uprisings elsewhere

The commoners' revolution found an echo in other parts of the viceroyalty. In June 1781, government troops put down a revolt in Pasto. Likewise, uprisings took place in Neiva, Guarne, Tumaco, Hato de Lemos, Casanare and Mérida.

In Antioquia there were also some revolts, such as that of the Guarne community members, who demanded freedom to grow tobacco.

Main characters

As noted above, the revolution began with the popular classes. Later, members of sectors better situated socially, like merchants or small farmers joined.

As the rebellion grew, some prestigious figures of the time and indigenous people led by Ambrosio Pisco also gave their support.

Manuela Beltran

Manuela Beltrán was the one who made the gesture that started the revolution of the comuneros. In the middle of the market, on March 16, 1781, in El Socorro, the edict that decreed the new rates imposed by the Crown on the population of the Viceroyalty was uprooted from a tobacconist.

Jose Antonio Galán

Born in Charalá, José Antonio Galán was of very humble origin and could not even study during his childhood. According to historians, he was illiterate and only knew how to sign.

There is not much information about his life until he became one of the leaders of the communeros' revolution. After signing the Capitulations, Galán distrusted the intentions of the Viceroyalty authorities, so he tried to continue the fight. However, he was captured and hanged on March 19, 1782.

Juan Francisco Berbeo

Juan Francisco Berbeo Moreno was a native of the town where the revolution began, El Socorro. Once the uprising began, he became Commander General of the commoners.

Berbeo belonged to a family of the city's elite, although not very wealthy. When the revolt broke out, he was one of the council's councilors and was chosen by the people to lead it.

As commander, he participated in the negotiations that led to the Capitulations of Zipaquirá. As part of the agreement, he was appointed Corregidor of the jurisdiction of El Socorro.

When the capitulations were annulled by the government, Berbeo was dismissed and arrested, although he managed not to be convicted in the subsequent trial.

Juan Francisco Gutiérrez de Piñeres

Gutiérrez de Piñeres held the position of Regent Visitor during the revolution of the comuneros. This figure had been created by the Spanish to control the payment of the new taxes. In addition to the very existence of these fees, their cruel methods of collecting them were one of the causes of the revolt.

Antonio Caballero and Góngora

Antonio Caballero y Góngora came to the world in Priego de Córdoba, Spain. He was a Catholic Archbishop and Viceroy of New Granada between 1782 and 1789.

The revolution of the comuneros took place when Caballero y Góngora was archbishop. He was part of the commission created by the Viceroy to negotiate with the rebels and, according to historians, was responsible for convincing them to accept an agreement. The comuneros took his word for it and agreed to dissolve.

Shortly after, however, the viceroyalty ignored said agreement and ordered the capture of the revolutionaries. A year later, Caballero was appointed Viceroy of New Granada.

References

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3. Córdoba Perozo, Jesus. The commoners of Nueva Granada (1781). Obtained from queaprendemoshoy.com
4. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Common Rebellion. Retrieved from britannica.com
5. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. Comunero Revolt (New Granada). Retrieved from encyclopedia.com
6. OnWar. Revolt of the comuneros (New Granada) 1781. Retrieved from onwar.com
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8. Executed Today. 1782: Jose Antonio Galan, for the Revolt of the Comuneros. Retrieved from executedtoday.com