PERU'S FIRST MILITARISM: BACKGROUND AND CHARACTERISTICS - HISTORY - 2025

The first militarism of the Peru was the subsequent historical stage in the creation of the Peruvian republic in which power occurred in several military presidents. Most of them had stood out for their work during the wars of independence. This period began in 1827 and ended in 1872.

When Simón Bolívar lost power, Peru did not have any kind of political structure. The years of conflict had led to the appearance of several military leaders, but they had not allowed a bourgeoisie to appear that could become an alternative to lead the country.

Death of President Gamarra in the battle of Ingavi - Source: National Museum of Archeology, Anthropology and History of Peru in public domain

It was, therefore, the military who took over power during the first decades of the republic. The first militarism went through several different phases: military caudillismo, military anarchy, and bogus prosperity.

In general terms, the first militarism had as its main characteristic the constant conflict between liberals and conservatives. Similarly, this stage was marked by the lack of economic development and by total dependence on the guano trade and foreign investors.

Background

In August 1821, Peru proclaimed its independence from the hand of San Martín, who assumed power. The following month, it convened a Constituent Assembly that appointed Francisco Xavier de Luna as president.

However, the war against the Spanish was not over. The royalists still controlled much of the Peruvian territory and San Martín asked Simón Bolívar for help to end that resistance.

Both leaders met in Guayaquil in July 1822. In addition to the request for military support, at that meeting they discussed the fate of the meeting's host city and that Bolívar had annexed Greater Colombia. Likewise, they tried to reach an agreement on the government system of the new countries.

Bolívar did not accept that Guayaquil will come under Peruvian sovereignty. Regarding the second issue, the two liberators did not reach an agreement: Bolívar was a republican and San Martín a monarchist.

Despite the failure of those negotiations, Bolívar agreed to send troops. San Martín, although he accepted said help, resigned his positions before Congress. To replace him, the Chamber appointed a Governing Board made up of three members and headed by General José de la Mar.

Bolivar

The Governing Board tried to finish off the royalists without the help of Bolivar. Both military expeditions ended in failure, so the then president, José Bernardo de Tagle, had no choice but to turn to the Liberator.

Simón Bolívar arrived in Callao on September 1, 1823. Days later, Congress named him the highest military authority in Peru. Even President Torre Tagle was obliged to consult him on all decisions.

In February of that same year, the Spanish managed to recover Callao. The Peruvian Congress further expanded Bolívar's powers to try to reverse the situation. In this way, a dictatorship was established.

From Trujillo, Bolívar planned the campaign that would put an end to the Spanish presence in the area. The decisive battle took place in Ayacucho, in December 1824. After that confrontation, only a few pockets of realistic resistance remained, which held out until January 1826.

End of Bolívar's rule

After the victory against the Spanish, Bolívar tried to maintain the installed dictatorship, although he delegated part of his powers to a Governing Council and returned to Gran Colombia. Before leaving, he left everything ready for Peru to swear the Lifetime Constitution in December 1826.

Just a month later, a group of liberal and nationalist soldiers took up arms and expelled the Colombian troops that remained in the area.

Peru thus became a republic, although during the first decades of its existence it was the military who held the presidency.

characteristics

The First Militarism lasted from 1827 to 1872. It was a very turbulent time in all areas. However, according to historian Jorge Basadre, this period was decisive in designing the future of the country.

Caudillos

In the absence of a structured civil society, this period was characterized by military dominance in the institutions. Most of the caudillos who held high political positions had participated in the war of independence, so they enjoyed an important prestige in the country.

In addition, the tensions over the definition of the borders between Peru and its neighbors, Bolivia, Chile and Greater Colombia, made the presence of the military in power more important.

These warlords had non-professional armies. Almost all were linked to different power groups, which they favored when they came to power. Between 1821 and 1845, up to 53 governments, ten congresses, and six constitutions succeeded each other in Peru.

Situation of the Church

The Catholic Church had been one of the most influential and powerful institutions during colonial times. After independence, it continued to maintain its role as a stabilizing element of society.

Natives

The indigenous population in the newly independent Peru did not improve their situation. The republic continued to oblige them to pay a special tribute and provide personal service.

Not even the liberals had proposals to improve the rights of indigenous people. They only developed some policies to try to integrate them by facilitating their participation in economic life, but without giving them any kind of support. This caused them to continue at the mercy of the great owners of the land.

Economic situation

The years of conflict to achieve independence had left the Peruvian economy in a very precarious situation. The two most important sectors for the country, agriculture and mining, had almost disappeared.

At the beginning of the First Militarism, the internal market was too limited to mean an improvement in the economy. Nor was there hardly any investment from abroad.

Over time, the military who came to the government decided to base the entire economic development of the country on the export of raw materials, especially guano. To do this, they had to look for foreign companies.

However, the resulting economic improvement was more apparent than real and was not enough to alleviate poverty for the majority of the population.

Political situation

As noted, political instability was the main feature of political life during this period. Coups d'état and civil wars between the different caudillos were very frequent.

On the other hand, as it happened in most of Latin America, liberals and conservatives clashed to try to impose their ideas of political organization. The former were supporters of a parliamentary republic, while the latter were committed to presidentialism.

Main facts and events

Most experts divide the First Militarism stage into three different periods: Military Caudillismo 1827 - 1844; the Military Anarchy 1842 - 1844; and the False Prosperity: 1845 - 1872.

First governments

As soon as the republic was established, Peru had to face its first military conflict. In 1828 the war began with Gran Colombia presided over by Simón Bolívar. The cause was the claim by Bolívar of several areas belonging to Peru.

Peru managed to conquer Guayaquil, but were defeated at Portete de Tarqui. Before the conflict grew in intensity, both sides reached a peace agreement. This, which was signed in September 1829, did not change the existing borders before the war.

The first presidents of the First Militarism were José de la Mar, Agustín Gamarra and Luis José de Orbegoso. During those governments, which lasted until 1836, there was a bitter debate between liberals and conservatives.

The division of Gran Colombia into three different countries had repercussions in Peru. On the one hand, Bolivian President Andrés de Santa Cruz wanted to create a federation between the two nations. On the other, Gamarra wanted, directly, that Peru annex Bolivia.

The civil war that broke out in Peru between the Gamarra and Orbegoso supporters gave Bolivia the opportunity to carry out its federation plans.

Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation

Orbegoso asked Santa Cruz for help to defeat Gamarra in the civil war that confronted them. The president of Bolivia took the opportunity to send an army that ended up conquering the country after two years of bloody confrontations.

With this victory, Santa Cruz founded the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation in June 1837. For a few months, Santa Cruz's work in government allowed Peru to grow economically and stabilized the political situation.

However, the intervention of Chile represented the end of the Confederation. The Chilean government viewed the new country as a threat and, with the help of Peruvian exiles opposed to Santa Cruz, organized an army to invade Peru.

The so-called Restoration Army managed to defeat the supporters of the Confederacy. Thus, in January 1839, Peru again became a unitary republic.

False prosperity

Already in 1845, Ramón Castilla became the new president of Peru and was the first to finish his six-year term. This stability allowed the republic to grow economically. To do this, the government promoted the extraction of guano, which represented a significant increase in state revenues.

The entire structure of the exploitation and sale of this natural fertilizer was carried out using a consignment system, which would end up causing major corruption scandals.

The successor of Castile, General Echenique, carried out a continuity policy. However, a serious episode of corruption broke out called Consolidation of the External Debt that ended up causing a revolution in the country. This was led by Castilla and the Liberals.

The revolutionaries, even before defeating the government troops, enacted a law that abolished slavery and another that eliminated the tax on indigenous people.

Thus began, in 1855, the second government of Castile, which would last until 1862. At this stage, the government built the first railways and promoted lighting in the cities. On the other hand, Peru participated in a new war, this time against Ecuador.

Civil war

The government of Castile promulgated in 1856 a markedly liberal Constitution. Conservatives responded with guns. This led to a civil war that lasted until 1858 and resulted in the death of more than 40,000 Peruvians.

Despite its victory, Castile then decided to separate politically from the Liberals. In 1860, the government approved a new Constitution, this time very moderate. This Magna Carta became the longest lasting in the history of Peru.

War against Spain

One of the most serious events that occurred during the First Militarism occurred when Spain invaded the Chincha Islands, very rich in Guano. The first reaction of Peruvian President Juan Antonio Pezet was to try to negotiate, something that the population of his country did not like.

Colonel Mariano Ignacio Prado, along with nationalist groups, carried out a coup against Pezet that led to the former to the presidency. Once in power, the new President declared war on the Spanish.

Together with Chile, which was also at war with Spain, the Peruvians managed to get the Spanish navy to leave the coast of Peru in May 1866. Despite this triumph, the conflict caused a new economic crisis. In addition, war spending was compounded by the decline in the guano trade.

Prado's attempt to become Constitutional President ended up causing a new revolution to break out. The uprising succeeded in overthrowing Prado and, after the call for elections, brought one of its leaders, Colonel José Balta, to power.

Balta and the Dreyfus Contract

José Balta was the last president of the First Militarism. His government was responsible for changing the consignment system that had characterized the guano market. Instead, he signed the so-called Dreyfus Contract with a British company.

Thanks to the agreement on the sale of guano, Peru was able to borrow abroad. The money obtained was used to improve the country's infrastructure, especially the railways.

However, in the long term, the loans ended up causing big problems. Peru was unable to meet the payments, causing a serious crisis.

In 1871 a civilian was elected for the first time as President: Manuel Pardo y Lavalle. Despite an attempted military coup, Pardo took office in 1872.

References

1. History of Peru. First Militarism. Obtained from historiaperuana.pe
2. Pedagogical Folder. First Militarism in Peru. Obtained from folderpedagogica.com
3. Studying online. First Militarism in Peru. Obtained from estudiondoenlinea.com
4. Robert N. Burr, James S. Kus. Peru. Retrieved from britannica.com
5. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Peruvian – Bolivian Confederation. Retrieved from britannica.com
6. Gootenberg, Paul. Economic Ideas in Peru's "Fictitious Prosperity" of Guano, 1840-1880. Recovered from publishing.cdlib.org
7. The Biography. Biography of Agustín Gamarra (1785-1841). Retrieved from thebiography.us