THE 7 MOST IMPORTANT FOREIGN INTERVENTIONS IN MEXICO - HISTORY - 2025

The foreign interventions in Mexico began when the nation became independent, following disagreements that were generated as a result of commercial alliances with other countries.

Foreign intervention is defined as the action of denying or exceeding the sovereignty of an independent state, with the intention of forcing it to take measures, agreements or conduct other than its particular vision.

Mexico suffered the intervention of those who were its allies, which caused repercussions on autonomy, security, commerce, citizenship, food, resources, international relations, and the entire public sector.

After achieving independence, the rulers of Mexico sought to achieve international esteem from the main countries of the moment.

The most favorable way to obtain the recognition of the States with the highest growth of the time, such as France, England, the United States, Spain and the Vatican; it was to formalize commercial alliances.

The Mexican state responded responsibly, but faced various pressures in the first three decades of its independence.

The United States intervened the country militarily and carried out annexations to the territory, and England intervened with financial and diplomatic pressure.

In addition, Spain had intentions to invade to retake part of the lost lands, and France had interventions for economic reasons. These interventions were experienced by Mexico from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s.

The growth of capitalism in the last years of the nineteenth century caused the most developed countries to expand their supremacy, to take the wealth and raw materials of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

These riches were in great need for industrialization. The economic powers took advantage of the implementation of measures for their own benefit, thus causing difficulties in the establishment of the new countries.

Some of the nations that intervened in Latin America were France, the Netherlands, Belgium, the United States, Germany, and Great Britain, countries that achieved their goals through uneven trade, diplomatic influence, military forces, and loans, among other means.

The main foreign interventions in Mexico

1- England intervention

At the time that Mexico achieved its independence, England was the nation with the greatest capitalist development in industry and economy. Also in marketing, since it owned factories and had the wealth to invest in other regions.

England had prosperous colonies on the Asian and African continent; in addition, it had the largest and most armed navy in the world.

This nation decided to establish trade links with Mexico because of its mineral wealth, especially silver and because of the opportunities for expansion within the country, to carry out English manufacturing production.

In this way, the United Mexican States and Great Britain signed a treaty of friendship, navigation and commerce to establish economic relations and, at the same time, to stop the expansion of the United States of America.

Since 1826, when the relationship between the two countries was formalized, other European countries showed interest in Mexico in various sectors, such as diplomatic, commercial and artistic agreements.

Great Britain was the main commercial ally of the United States of Mexico and became the benefactor of machinery, textiles and in the extraction of mineral resources.

The physical location of Mexico, between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, was highly favored for trade. The investment of the English in Mexico promoted the exploitation of natural resources and helped the growth of the economy.

On the other hand, Great Britain intervened to mediate conflicts with France, in 1839; by the War of the Cakes with the United States, due to the independence of Texas, in 1836; and at the end of the war between Mexico and the United States, in 1848.

2- Intervention of Spain

Battle of Tempico in 1829. Carlos Paris / Public domain

Between 1821 and 1854, Mexico and Spain maintained conflictive relations, although the Mexican army had defeated the last Spanish troops in 1825, with the ships they acquired through loans from the British.

In early 1827, Friar Joaquín Arenas led a conspiracy to remove the Mexican government from power and reestablish Spanish sovereignty in Mexico, which had no effect because his troops were defeated.

The Arenas conspiracy led the Mexican Congress to expose the Expulsion Law, which consisted of the immediate departure from the country of all Spanish citizens residing in Mexico.

This resulted in a breakdown in the nation's economy, since many of those expelled were merchants and landowners, who took their wealth with them to their country of origin.

The strongest problem that Mexico had to dispute with Spain was the military expedition that occurred in 1829, led by the Spanish Isidro Barradas, who took the Expulsion Law as a motive for action to carry out the reconquest of Mexico.

Barradas and his soldiers arrived in Veracruz and persuaded the Mexican soldiers to join them and thus reestablish the government of Fernando VII, but the Mexican army responded and managed to defeat the Spanish troops, although they had disadvantages in arms.

Barradas, by signing the Pueblo Viejo Agreement, gave his commitment not to invade Mexico again.

The monarch Fernando VII did not want to accept the loss of the richest colony in Spain, so it was not until his death that the Spanish government was able to recognize the independence of Mexico.

In 1836, Mexico and Spain signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship.

3- Intervention of

The government of Mexico made many attempts for France to grant its recognition of independence, which did not occur until 1830, because of the commercial alliances that were established between the two nations.

Although forming these relations with the second power of Europe was a risky matter, Mexico agreed with France two trade treaties: one in 1827 and another in 1831. But neither was ratified by the Congress of Mexico.

The first treaty was not ratified because France had not recognized Mexican independence; and the second, because the guarantees requested by France went against the Mexican constitution of 1824.

In 1832 the French minister Antoine Deffaudis proposed a retail trade agreement for French residents in Mexico, until a decisive agreement was established.

Deffaudis' proposal was approved by the Santa Anna government but the Mexican Congress rejected it. Because of this revocation, the minister used several French testimonies to accuse the Mexican government of damaging its businesses, as a strategy to exert pressure and obtain a free trade agreement.

Relations with the French minister were broken and he ended up leaving the country, to later return with several French navy ships, which arrived in Veracruz.

In 1839 the so-called War of the Cakes began, the first French intervention. Soon after, both countries began negotiations to settle economic disagreements and signed a peace treaty, which caused France to withdraw its armed fleet without paying war expenses.

France intervened for the second time in Mexico, militarily invading the nation by the Second French Empire, which received support from Spain and Great Britain.

It was after President Benito Juárez suspended the payment of interest to foreign countries in 1861, and this caused the displeasure of European countries.

The three powers united to demand payments from Mexico, but when they reached the port of Veracruz and understood that France intended to conquer the entire territory, they made their withdrawal.

4- United States intervention

While Mexico was building its government, at the same time the United States was expanding its territory. The United States was the country that most attacked Mexico through various diplomatic applications and armed interventions, which resulted in the Spanish-speaking country losing half of its territory in 1848.

Many aspects coincided for Mexico to lose its lands. There were internal divisions in the political parties and a reduced economy, which made it difficult to stabilize the situation in the north of the country.

Added to this, highlights the existence of foreign settlers, who sought to appropriate the land, and the US expansion plan.

This situation resulted in the separation of Texas, in 1836, from the United States of Mexico, and its annexation to the United States of America ten years later.

From 1822 the Mexican state established laws for the colonists living in Texas, but they did not pay attention, they negotiated lands illegally, they brought slaves; Texans were Protestant and spoke English.

In view of the cultural and social determination of Texas, the Mexican government was tolerant of the needs of Texans, but even so Texas declared its independence in 1836.

When Mexico's war with Texas ended, the Mexican government did not recognize the independence of the Texan settlers, but instead, the United States accepted the sovereignty of Texas, and years later it achieved its mission, which was to annex it to its government, which it aggravated relations between Mexico and the United States.

Finally, the US Congress ratified the integration of Texas, and demanded that the Mexican government be granted the state of Coahuila, in addition to taking different actions to force them to sell California and New Mexico.

From these demands on the part of the United States, a much more serious situation arose, with the invasion of the American army in Mexico.

5- Mexican War - United States

Defense of the Castle of Chapultepec. EB & EC Kellogg (Firm) / Public domain

This war has been considered one of the most unjust in history. It took place from 1846 to 1848.

With the United States interested in taking the territory of northern Mexico and exerting strong diplomatic pressure, Mexico decided not to accept his request and to keep his lands.

In 1846, US President James Polk gave the order to reach Mexican territory with his troops to intimidate and provoke the Mexican army, and they declared war in the middle of that year.

The US Navy gave an order to block the ports of Mexico, stopping trade and customs duties. The Mexican troops were defeated time and again for not having the resources for maintenance, weapons or strategies.

Later, the United States tried another tactic, seeking the negotiation of a peace agreement, asking that New Mexico and Alta California be handed over to it, but the Mexican leaders rejected the treaty and the war situation continued.

The American troops managed to reach Mexico City and defeated the Mexican army in several battles, such as Padierna, Casa Mata, and Chapultepec, among others. In 1848, the United States stood in the National Palace, exerting much greater pressure.

After a defeat at the Battle of Cerro Gordo, peace was negotiated with the United States, although there was much opposition from the Mexican federalists.

When the Guadalupe-Hidalgo peace treaty ended in 1848, the invasion ended and Mexico had to cede New Mexico and Alta California to the United States.

6- Second French intervention in Mexico

Raising of the American flag in the port of Veracruz. Photograph by Hadsell taken during the US occupation of Veracruz, 1914. / Public domain

After the War of the Reform, Mexico was in a borderline economic situation. Therefore, in 1861 President Benito Juárez announced the suspension of foreign debt payments.

For this reason, France, the United Kingdom and Spain joined forces to demand these payments and formed an alliance created at the London Convention and where it was decided to send troops to intervene in Mexico.

Although the Mexican government backed down, the triple alliance followed its plan and in 1862 they arrived in Veracruz to negotiate. The United Kingdom and Spain reached an agreement, but the French were not satisfied and decided to occupy the country.

On June 10, 1863, the troops arrived in Mexico City, the starting point to occupy other parts of the country. However, the Mexican resistance forced the French to leave the country in 1866, who were more aware of their conflict with Prussia.

7- Second American Intervention in Mexico

In 1914, the US Army occupied Veracruz to prevent an important consignment of arms from reaching the Mexican federal army to stop the revolutionary struggle that was taking place in the country at that time.

The Americans were on the side of Venustiano Carranza's constitutional forces due to the Tampico incident, where there was an altercation between the natives and the US sailors.

North American President Woodrow Wilson went further and withdrew his ambassador, did not recognize Victoriano Huerta as the ruler and supported the revolutionary struggle by starting a battle in the port of Veracruz.

It began on April 21, 1914 and they soon took control. This continued until November 23 of the same year, at which time the US Army withdrew to give power to Venustiano Carranza, who had taken over the reins of the nation.

References

1. John SD Eisenhower. The United States and the Mexican Revolution. (1994). Recovered from: foreignaffairs.com
2. US Department of State. French Intervention in Mexico. (2009). Source: 2001-2009.state.gov
3. United States Interventions in Mexico: veteranmuseum.org
4. Santiago Navarro. US Intervention in Mexico. (2017). Source: wasp.org
5. UNAM. Foreign interventions in Mexico. Source: portalacademico.cch.unam.mx