TOLTEC CULTURE: ORIGIN, LOCATION, CHARACTERISTICS, ORGANIZATION - CULTURE VOCABULARY - 2024

The Toltec culture was one of the civilizations that appeared during pre-Columbian times in Mesoamerica. Its geographical scope was the center of present-day Mexico and its apogee occurred during the 10th and 12th centuries AD. The capital was located in Tula, a town that many historians place in the State of Hidalgo, about 60 kilometers from Mexico City.

Despite the fact that experts point out that the Toltecs exerted a great influence on other later cultures, the information they have about them is quite scarce. Almost all of this information comes from the Aztecs and oral tradition, which is why, on many occasions, historical realities are mixed with legends and myths.

Mesoamerica during the heyday of the Toltec culture (10th-12th century AD) - Source: Yavidaxiu Own work, based on a map from http://www2.demis.nl/mapserver/mapper.asp and information from the Atlas of Pre-Hispanic Mexico

These legends affirm that the Toltecs were a multiethnic culture, formed by several different peoples that were uniting until they formed a single civilization. This was governed by a monarchy that lasted more than 300 years, with a great importance of religion and war.

The importance of the warrior caste and the priests were two of the most important characteristics of the Toltec culture. Their war incursions caused their territories to grow, but also to increase the number of their enemies. Although there is some ignorance about their disappearance, it seems that, finally, their rivals ended up defeating them.

Origin and history

The lack of information on the Toltec culture has led to the existence of even a current of historians who affirm that they did not really exist, but that they would be a mythological creation of the Aztecs.

However, other historiographic currents do believe in its existence. For these experts, the Toltecs would be an expression of the Nahuatl people.

Etymologically, the name of the culture is also the subject of discussion. Some authors consider that Toltec means "inhabitant of Tula" in the Nahuatl language. Likewise, it is also usually translated as craftsman or artist, something that would refer to the mastery of the Toltecs in these areas.

According to Nahuatl legends, the Toltecs would be the creators of civilization. The Aztecs themselves later called themselves descendants of the Toltecs to reaffirm their dominance of Mesoamerica.

Nomadism

In the beginning, the Toltecs were an eminently nomadic people. About 511 d. C., they left Huehuetlapallan, place where the old Tollan would be found. During their journey, which lasted 104 years, the Toltecs were ruled by seven lords: Zacatl, Chalcatzingo, Ehecatzin, Cohualtzin, Tzihuacoatl, Metzotzin and Tlapalmetzotzin.

Their first destination was Tollantzinco, where they resided for 20 years. Later, the Toltecs settled in Tollan or Tula, from where they created their kingdom.

It was there that, in 667 AD. C., the Toltec culture became a monarchy that lasted 384 years, during which 8 different kings succeeded each other.

Legend about its origin

The Toltec legend about their origin stated that they arrived at Tollan-Xicocotitlan led by King Mixcoatl. His son, Topiltzin, who was a real personage, consecrated himself to Quetzalcóatl and reigned with the name of that god.

During Topiltzin's reign, the Toltec culture achieved great achievements and great prosperity. The territory under his command increased considerably by conquering nearby cities. Among these, Culhuacán and Otumba stood out, with which the so-called Triple Toltec Alliance was formed.

Topiltzin was the promoter of the reform of the calendar and introduced metallurgy in his kingdom. In addition, it was the time when the Toltec culture reached its greatest architectural splendor, with the construction of palaces and temples in Tollan-Xicocotitlan.

According to this story, Topiltzin and Quetzalcóatl came into conflict in the 10th century. The latter was the winner and the Toltec king had to flee with his followers to the south. There he defeated the Mayans and conquered Chichén Itzá, after which he became known as Kukulkán, the god-king of the Mayans.

History

As noted, the history of the Toltec culture is only known from later references that, in most cases, mixed real events with myths and legends. In general lines it is pointed out that Tollan-Xicocotitlan became a center of power around 950 AD. C.

The peak of this culture occurred between 900 and 1200 AD. Their dominions grew until reaching part of the Yucatan. In that period, the Toltecs incorporated elements of other civilizations in the area and their influence reached Oaxaca, Chiapas and part of Central America.

It was also in those years that they began to collect tribute from the peoples they conquered and developed a political, social and religious system that was maintained practically until the arrival of the Spanish.

The decline of the Toltec civilization began around 1150 AD. C., after they transferred their capital to Chapultepec. Although the data on that period are scarce, the hypothesis that gathers more consensus is that they were attacked by several nomadic peoples, in addition to suffering the effects of long droughts that caused the lack of food.

Some legends affirm that a Toltec group, during this period of decadence, arrived in Cholula. There they survived until Hernán Cortés sacked the area and burned the town.

Relationship with the Mayans

As in other aspects of the history of the Toltec culture, its relationship with the Mayans has provoked different theories among historians.

Many experts affirm that the influence of the Toltecs in the Mayan culture is a proven fact, although it cannot be assured that they arrived in the Yucatan militarily. Other historians, on the other hand, believe that it was the Mayans who founded Tula.

It does seem proven that there was a lot of commercial and political-religious contact between both cultures, as shown by the architecture or the implantation of Quetzalcóatl as the god of the Mayans.

Geographical and temporal location

After a period described by historians as one of darkness, between 650 and 800 AD. C., the Toltec culture appeared in Mesoamerica. This moved from the northeast of present-day Mexico until reaching its center and settled in the current states of Morelos, Hidalgo, Puebla, Mexico City and Tlaxcala.

Chronologically, the dominance of this culture extended from the classical and post-classical periods, that is, from 800 to 1200 AD. C.

Geographic location

In its beginnings, the Toltecs were a nomadic people. Their origin seems to be in a place called Huehuetlapallan (Old Red Land, in Nahuatl), from where they traveled for more than 100 years to settle in the center of present-day Mexico.

Once they began to expand, the Toltecs managed to dominate a fairly large territory, including the southeast area of ​​the Yucatan peninsula.

Theories about Tollan

The theories about the location of Tollan, the capital of the Toltecs, are as numerous as those that exist about its origin or even about its own existence.

Among the best known hypotheses is that of a group of Mexican anthropologists who, in 1941, affirmed that the mythical Tollan was located in the current city of Tula, in Hidalgo.

However, experts such as Laurette Séjourné, denied this conclusion, since, according to this archaeologist, the excavations carried out had not found anything that would allow this claim to be made. Séjourné maintained that the origin of Tollan was, in fact, in Teotihuacán and that Tula had been only a refuge of the survivors of the fall of that city.

This last hypothesis is shared by Enrique Florescano, a historian belonging to the National Institute of Anthropology and History. This Mexican expert studied some Mayan writings that identified Tollan with Teotihuacan.

characteristics

Among the most outstanding characteristics of the Toltec culture was its mastery in the field of architecture. In fact, one of the translations of the Toltec Nahuatl word is "master builder." In Tollan-Xicocotitlan you could find multiple examples of the skill of its craftsmen and builders.

In addition to the above, the Toltec civilization introduced into Mesoamerica a good part of the religious beliefs that later became general. The most important example in this sense was the appearance of Quetzalcóatl as their main god, something that extended to most of the later Mesoamerican peoples.

Economy

The most prosperous period of the Toltec culture was characterized by its economic growth and stability. Its most important activities were crafts, commerce, metallurgy and agriculture. In addition, they began to collect tribute from the conquered peoples.

Agriculture was the basis of the Toltec economy, who, to make their fields more productive, created a complex network of canals that carried irrigation water. Its most common crops were corn, beans and, above all, amaranth.

Trade, as with other Mesoamerican civilizations, also played an important role in the Toltec economy. The mercantile exchange also served them to obtain the raw materials they needed and that they could not find near their settlements.

Being a warrior people and that based its expansion on the conquest of new territories, the wealth of the Toltecs increased thanks to the collection of tributes from the defeated peoples. Among the proceeds, products such as mother of pearl and other materials that they used for their craft work stood out.

Lastly, many historians claim that they were the first civilization in the region to handle metals. His jobs, however, were quite simple.

Language and writing of the Toltec culture

The language spoken by the Toltecs was Nahuatl. This language, which became the lingua franca of all Mesoamerican civilizations, had appeared in the 7th century and continued to be used until the 13th century.

On the other hand, the Toltec culture developed a pictographic writing system. This system had consonants and vowels organized in such a way that they formed words that were easy to understand.

The written texts of the Toltecs were based primarily on their environment. For this reason, their symbols used to describe the beings and objects with which they lived in their day to day.

Toltec clothing

The information about how the Toltecs dressed comes from the statues and monuments made in their cities. Thanks to these representations, it is known that those who were part of its elite used to wear belts, capes (called tilmatli), a skirt (called cueitl) and an ichcahuipilli, which consisted of a thick cloth.

The leaders' wives were distinguished by wearing a rectangular-cut dress called quexquémitl. This, according to experts, had a symbolism related to fertility.

The lower-class Toltecs wore much simpler garments: a kind of loincloth, a tangle, and did not wear shoes.

Religion

The influence of the Toltec religion reached all later Mesoamerican cultures, which adapted much of their mythology.

The religion of the Toltecs was polytheistic, although there were two main gods. The first was Quetzalcóatl, who represented good, and the second was Tezcatlipoca, the deity of evil. Apart from these two gods, they also worshiped others such as Tláloc, Itzlacoliuhque and Centéotl, closely linked to the forces of nature.

The most important contribution of the Toltec culture to the Mesoamerican religion is the introduction of the myth of Quetzalcóatl. This was later picked up by many other cultures in the area, although with slight variations. Despite these small changes, almost all recounted the fall of the god for having succumbed to his passions.

According to Toltec mythology, Quetzalcóatl had to go into exile after being defeated by Tezcatlipoca. As he set out on his raft of snakes, the god made a promise to return.

That promise, according to some stories, was what led the Aztecs to think that the Spanish conqueror Hernán Cortés was Quetzalcóatl himself returning to his town.

Households

The mentioned architectural skill of the Toltecs was not limited to temples or palaces. The houses also stood out for the quality of their construction and for how they were organized.

An important aspect in these dwellings was the importance given to religion. For this reason, these houses had an altar, placed in the central area of ​​the house. Around it were the rooms, including the kitchen. This room was equipped with a ceramic oven and also served to store food.

To build the houses the Toltecs used various materials. The main one was adobe, although the use of stones, wood or cement was also frequent. Social differences were the fundamental factor on which the chosen material depended, since the richer the family, the better materials it used.

Political organization

The Toltec way of organizing politically was based on two different factors: their origins as a nomadic people and the importance of war in their culture. Both aspects were fundamental to define the political structure of their civilization.

In this way, the search for strong leadership was a priority, especially during the period of conquest of territories. These confrontations caused that the political organization was centered in the war and, related to this, in the religion.

In Toltec culture, all decisions, whether administrative or warlike, had to be supported by the gods through the priests.

Warrior caste

The most important social class within the Toltec culture was that of the warriors. Its most famous king, Topiltzin-Quetzalcóatl, was the one who carried out the most important military campaigns to extend his dominions and create an empire.

Thus, the importance of the military within the Toltec political organization lasted from 900 AD. Until the XII century. According to experts, the entire golden age of this civilization was based on a militaristic administration.

However, according to historians, that same warrior character also contributed to the downfall of the Toltec civilization. The wars against neighbors and the tributes that the defeated had to pay led to the creation of a coalition against them that eventually defeated them.

Priests

The priestly caste was part of the elite within the Toltec culture. Its influence was noticeable, especially, in the administrative aspects. Although they also had some participation in the military aspect, in this area it was the warrior class, which included the king, who exercised leadership.

On many occasions, the kings also held the position of high priest, thus encompassing all possible power.

Rulers

The Toltecs had different kings throughout the 300 years that their monarchy lasted. Among them, Topiltzin stood out, who adopted the name of Quetzalcoatl to unite, thus, the religious aspect with the political and military. This monarch was responsible for expanding his territory and endowing his kingdom with prosperity.

The monarch representing the polar opposite of Topiltzin was Huemac. This king was one of the last to occupy the position and, according to experts, led his kingdom to suffer hardships. It was during his reign that the power of the Toltecs began to weaken due to innumerable external and internal conflicts. In addition, he was a very despotic monarch.

Laws

The person in charge of promulgating the laws within the Toltec civilization was the king, while the military were in charge of enforcing them.

Among the most severe punishments for those who violate the legislation was sacrifice to the gods. Another, milder punishment was to become a slave to the upper classes.

Social organization

Toltec society was divided into very different classes: an upper class made up of the king, warriors and priests and a lower class in which, although with differences, all the others were.

The king

At the top of the social pyramid was the king. This, on many occasions, combined political power with religious power.

Although the use of religion as a legitimizing factor was frequently used, in Toltec culture the popularity and power of the kings was closely related to their victories on the battlefield.

Warriors and priests

After the king, the next level in the social pyramid was occupied by the military. Given the importance of war in Toltec culture, the warrior caste had many privileges and its members were considered the most honorable citizens.

The soldiers were divided into different military orders, almost all of them named after animals, such as jaguars or coyotes.

High religious officials were practically on the same level. These had administrative functions, in addition to acting as guides for society.

Servile class

Although the rest of the population was included in the so-called servile class, experts find some differences between its members. Thus, there was a kind of middle class made up of artists, merchants or artisans.

The influence on politics or administration of these professionals was practically nil. However, they did have more privileges than, for example, the peasants.

On the other hand, the lower part of the pyramid was made up of the workers and the aforementioned peasants. Finally, without any type of rights, the slaves and prisoners who were taken in the different wars that the Toltecs fought appeared.

Culture (gastronomy, traditions, art)

Within the cultural sphere, the Toltecs left their stamp on architecture. Its construction techniques greatly influenced later civilizations, as can be seen in the remains left by the Mayans.

Gastronomy

Experts affirm that within the Toltec diet the use of amaranth stood out. This plant was essential in their gastronomy and it seems that it was essential to prevent them from suffering from famine during periods of drought.

Similarly, some historians point out that amaranth was also used in rituals and for commercial purposes. This was helped by the fact that this product took longer to spoil when compared to corn and beans.

Traditions

The influence of the Toltecs on later Mesoamerican civilizations was not limited to their architecture. Thus, some of its traditions were maintained until the arrival of the Spanish to the continent.

One of the means by which the Toltecs spread their traditions was through war, since they brought their religious beliefs and other customs to the defeated peoples.

Within his religious organization there was a group of wise men called Nonoalcas. These were priests dedicated to the god Quetzalcóatl, the main Toltec deity. Over time, the cult of this god spread throughout Mesoamerica.

Another tradition of the Toltecs was human sacrifice. Archaeologists have found skeletal remains that prove it was a common practice.

In general, these sacrifices were made in offering to Tlaloc, the rain god as a method of obtaining his favors. Once the sacrifice was made, the heads of the victims were placed in the ceremonial plaza of Tula.

Art

Most Toltec art was related to architecture. It was about statues and wall reliefs in which they represented characters and gods of their culture. Likewise, these subjects were also treated in ceramics and crafts.

Among the best known works are the Atlanteans, stone warriors that are still found in Tula. These warriors were decorated with feathers and mosaics.

Likewise, the representations of Quetzalcóatl located in Chichen Itzá are also usually attributed to the Toltec culture or, at least, to its influence.

Within the field of architecture, the Toltecs were the first to add artistic finishes to the columns that supported the ceilings. These ornaments used to be anthropomorphic in shape or represent a feathered serpent.

References

1. Encyclopedia of History. Toltec culture. Obtained from encyclopediadehistoria.com
2. EcuRed. Toltec culture. Obtained from ecured.cu
3. Ancient Origins. The Toltecs: fierce warriors who changed the face of Mesoamerica for the better. Obtained from ancient-origins.es
4. Cartwright, Mark. Toltec Civilization. Retrieved from ancient.eu
5. Minster, Christopher. 10 Facts About the Ancient Toltecs. Retrieved from thoughtco.com
6. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Toltec. Retrieved from britannica.com
7. Crystalinks. Toltec. Retrieved from crystalinks.com