TEMPERATE FOREST: CHARACTERISTIC, FLORA, FAUNA, CLIMATE, RELIEF - ENVIRONMENT - 2025

The temperate forests are varied forests, located in the temperate zones of the planet Earth. These forests have a humid climate, frequent rains, strong winds, characteristic trees and grasslands. In them there is a predominance of deciduous and / or coniferous trees.

Temperate forests are considered relatively biodiverse and structurally complex due to the variety of flora they present and that sustain local fauna, often with exclusive local species (endemic). For example, these forests tend to have the greatest diversity of various insects, after the tropics.

Temperate forest of Soria in Spain. Source: David Abián at m.wikipedia.org.

In the forests of North America and Asia there is a vast diversity of plants, unlike the forests of Europe, where there is less relative diversity. Some temperate forest animals withstand low temperatures during winter by hibernating, while others migrate to areas with less cold temperatures.

The temperate forest biome is one of the most affected by settlements and human activities on our planet. Much of the trees in these forests has been (and continues to be) felled for use in housing construction or used as firewood for domestic use.

Trees in temperate forests have also been cut down for the purpose of using their land for agricultural activities. Due to all the above, this type of forest is currently a biome in danger of disappearing around the world.

General characteristics of temperate forests

- Floors

Temperate forests are generally made up of brown and silty soils. These are deep and well-structured soils, with an A horizon that has abundant organic matter in the form of a humus layer, which is formed with summer litter and other plant debris.

They have a dark brown color and are very fertile soils. Furthermore, these soils are a bit acidic, with the presence of iron oxides that generate internal reddish layers.

- Global location

There are four areas on the planet where temperate forests have developed, all with particular characteristics, so they do not resemble each other. These areas are as follows:

North Hemisphere

The temperate forest is found in the northern hemisphere:

• North of the United States and Canada.
• In central and western Europe.
• East of Russia.
• North of Russia and Scandinavia (where the world's largest temperate forest biome is found, with an area of ​​three million square kilometers).
• Partly from China and Japan (Western Asia).

Southern hemisphere

In the southern hemisphere, temperate forest is found in:

• The southern edge (located to the south) of South America. Although most of it has already been cut down for the use of its wood and its soils for agricultural purposes.
• New Zealand.

Types of temperate forests

Birches (order Fagales, Betulaceae family), frequent trees in temperate forests. Source: pxhere.com

Temperate forests can be classified according to their vegetation, which is in turn conditioned by the climate and local relief. According to the vegetation present, temperate forests can be classified as:

• Temperate hardwood forest (subdivided according to the prevailing climate in temperate deciduous forest, Mediterranean forest, temperate humid forest and montane forest).
• Temperate coniferous forest (with evergreen).
• Mixed forest (with deciduous hardwood and evergreen coniferous species).

Other classifications usually consider new types of temperate forests described in South America, such as:

Hardwood forest

With a predominance of angiosperms, or mixed forests, where angiosperms and gymnosperms coexist.

It has a temperate climate with regular rainfall distribution throughout the year (annual rainfall between 600 and 1500 mm), and the dry season may also occur, as occurs for example in East Asia and in regions with a Mediterranean climate.

It has moderate temperatures, with the exception of the hardwood forests located in Russia, where very low temperatures are reached in winter.

Coniferous forest

Characterized by its altitude and the presence of gymnosperms or conifers, such as pines, which accumulate layers of leaves with scales or so-called needles on the ground. The needles are very particular and have an elongated shape, like needles.

You can also find cypresses, cedars, firs, among other species of conifers such as redwoods. Its structure is made up of a low layer of understory and a high layer that is the canopy, and there may be another intermediate layer of shrubs.

These forests are found in New Zealand, Tasmania, the Caucasus, northeastern Europe and the coastal area of ​​the Atlantic Ocean, south of Japan, southwestern South America (in Chile and Argentina) and in the north of the American continent, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.

Valdivian forest (or Valdivian temperate forest)

Valdivian forest in Chile. Source: LBM1948, from Wikimedia Commons

It is a forest of many layers, which appears in a temperate and rainy oceanic climate. In this forest there is a predominance of laurel evergreen angiosperms (with broad, shiny leaves).

Among the species found in these forests, we can mention the hazel, the coihue, the luma, the tineo, the murta and the arrayán.

Among the typical fauna, we find the choroy parrot, the puma, the long-necked swan, the little monkey, among others.

The Valdivian forest is located in South America, south of Chile and southwest of Argentina. With an area of ​​248,100 ^km² geographically isolated, it has a large number of unique species in the world (endemic).

Mediterranean forest

It presents summer aridity and typical xerophytic vegetation, with woody and thorny species in the understory, such as alardiene, mastic, rosemary, thyme, juniper, among others.

The Mediterranean forest has a climate characterized by relatively dry summers, autumns and springs with frequent rainfall and mild winters.

They are found in the area bordering the Mediterranean Sea (Europe, the Near East and North Africa). They are also found in other Mediterranean areas of the planet, such as Alta and Baja California, South Africa, southern Australia, and in South America, in central Chile.

Temperate forest climate

The temperate forests of the world are very varied, and are generally located in the strip where polar air masses collide with tropical air masses. It is possible to propose some common characteristics regarding the climate that prevail in its different ecosystems:

Seasonal pattern

These forests present a marked seasonal pattern of hot summers and wet, cold winters with the presence of snow, mainly in those forests located in the north.

Precipitation and relative humidity

They are characterized by abundant precipitation, that is, a large amount of rainfall (annual average 500 - 2000 mm), which is uniformly distributed throughout the year. They have a permanent relative humidity of between 60 to 80%.

Annual average temperatures

Average annual temperatures in temperate forests are moderate and range from -30 to 30 ° C, generally without going below 0 ° C, except at the highest latitudes.

Global warming

As an effect of global warming, it has been shown that the temperate forest biomes are overlapping with their neighboring biomes located further north, which are the taiga biomes.

Temperate forests near the Equator

The closer the temperate forest is to the Equator, the summers tend to be warmer, and in the winter daily frosts can occur, reaching temperatures below 0 ° C.

In the temperate forests near the Equator, there is a higher incidence of solar radiation, therefore more water evaporates through the vegetation (by evapotranspiration). Thanks to the fact that the annual rainfall is very high and frequent, temperate forests are maintained in these areas.

Flora

- Seasonal changes

The flora of temperate forests shows very noticeable seasonal changes.

It is made up of trees that lose their leaves every fall (deciduous) and turn green in spring, as well as conifers (pines), lianas, and grasses. Its undergrowth is not very dense, rather it is open and commonly has abundant ferns.

- Diversity

There is a greater diversity of flora in the forests of North and Asia than in the forests of Europe and South America.

- Trees

Among the tree families typical of temperate forests are those of the Fagaceae, Aceraceae, Betulaceae, Pinaceae and Junglandaceae families. Most have thin, medium-sized leaves.

The understory of the temperate forest is not usually very dense, rather it is open in the case of beech forests and a little less open in the case of oak forests.

Hayales or beech trees

In general, there are beech trees or beech trees, which are forests of the deciduous tree Fagus sp (F. sylvatica in Europe, F. grandifolia and F. mexicana in America) or common beech, of the Fagaceae family. These trees can be 35 to 40 meters high.

Hayedo in Hessen, Germany. Source: Nikanos, from Wikimedia Commons

Robledos

In temperate forests there are also oaks or oaks (oak forests), with a variety of trees belonging to the Quercus genus, originating in the northern hemisphere and reaching from 200 to 1600 years old.

In the Iberian Peninsula, for example, there are oaks of the Quercus rubra, Q. faginea, Q. robur (common oak), Q. humilis, Q. pirenaica (the most widespread) and Q. petraea (sessile oak)).

Leaves of a tree of the genus Quercus. Source: Pixnio

Mixed forests

The mixed temperate forests are made up of varieties of trees, such as chestnut trees (which reach 35 meters in height), maples, poplars, linden, rowan and birch, among others.

Evergreen trees with broad leaves, bushes and grasses that bloom in spring, feeding on pollinating insects, abound in the south.

- Shrubs

Among the dominant shrub families in temperate forests are Ericaceae and Rosaceae.

- Herbs

Among the herb families are Umbelliferae, Compositae, Caryophyllaceae, Cruciferae, Labiatae, and Ranunculaceae.

There are also geophyte plants with a herbaceous structure, with rapid growth in spring, which adopt an inactive metabolism in the winter seasons, maintaining only underground reservoirs, such as bulbs, rhizomes or tubers.

Chestnut Aesculus hippocastanum. Source: Alvesgaspar at

- Seeds

Seed production in temperate forests occurs simultaneously and varies each year in quantity.

- Flowering

At a specific time of year, flowering and fruiting occurs in temperate forest. This stage generally occurs in the month of May, thanks to the existing weather conditions.

Fauna

- Impact of human activities

Many species of animals native to temperate forests have been displaced by local human activities. Many other animals are in danger of extinction, such as wolves, wildcats, bears, wild boar, deer, dormouse, crows and ducks, among others.

The species that still survive in these forests show seasonal adaptations and generally nocturnal habits.

- Some species of small animals

You can find a great variety of salamanders (including some endemic species, that is, unique in the world), small snakes, reptiles of the turtle and lizard type, various species of insects and worms. These animals are located between the grass, the ground and the litter present of the temperate forest.

- Birds

Among the variety of birds present in the temperate forest, there are birds of the order passerines, which contains more than half of the known birds, with a wide variety of adaptations to the environment.

This diverse group of birds encompasses diets that can be fruit-based (frugivorous) or insect-based (insectivorous).

Blue gabeador, passerine of the genus Sitta. Source: wikipedia.org

- Hibernation and migration

The animals that remain in the temperate forest during the winter, face low temperatures and adverse conditions with little availability of food.

However, some birds, bats and other mammals resist such conditions by going into hibernation, a state of lethargy with low metabolic rates that allows maximum energy savings in the body.

Dormouses, beavers and bears are examples of mammals that hibernate in winter.

Other animals can migrate to regions with better climatic conditions and greater availability of nutrients, and then return to the place of origin, when the winter has passed.

- Mammals

Among the mammals of temperate forests are herbivorous species such as beavers and deer.

There are also omnivorous animals such as bears, wild boars, dormouse, raccoons, deer, some species of rodents, squirrels (which feed on dried fruits and nuts), moles and bats. Most bats evade winter, migrating south, as do many birds.

Omnivorous diet black bear Ursus americanus, common in North America. Source: Rivera0997, from Wikimedia Commons

The most common mammals with a carnivorous diet in temperate forests are wolves, foxes and wildcats (an endangered species).

Relief

The relief of the temperate forest is characterized by being a flat and mountainous terrain that mixes with large lakes and rivers with strong currents.

Mountains

Mountainous regions can be found in many temperate forests of the world. In North America, the Appalachian and Adirondack Mountains range from Alabama to New York, a region that is full of temperate forests.

The Alps of Europe are extensively covered with temperate forests, which have also spread over other mountain ranges, including the Northern Alps of Japan and the Southern Alps of New Zealand.

However, when the mountains reach too high heights, the extremely cold climate and low air do not allow for temperate forests.

The highest regions of certain mountain ranges, such as the Alps, are occupied by another biome called the alpine tundra (land without vegetation).

Hills

A group of trees, slowly growing and falling over a hill, is a common sign of temperate forests.

The Cheviot Hills in the UK, covered with temperate forests, define the border between England and Scotland. In the non-mountainous regions of France, similar terrain can be found.

The temperate forested hills also stretch through the Great Lakes and New England regions of the United States.

Lakes

Temperate forests are moist, water-filled environments, so it is not surprising that the largest fresh water system is found in a temperate forest.

The Great Lakes, Huron, Michigan, Ontario and Superior occupy more than 700 miles of the coastline between the United States and Canada, land that is full of temperate forests.

Northern China is also covered by the country's main lake. The nation's largest freshwater lakes, Poyang, Dongting, and Taihu, are located in the temperate forests of eastern China.

Rivers

In North America, the Saint Lawrence and Hudson Rivers, which begin in temperate forest areas, connect the country's inland lake to the Atlantic Ocean.

The Missouri River runs from the Montana prairie through the westernmost parts of the forest.

Many of Europe's famous rivers flow into the North Sea from the temperate forests of England, France, Germany and the Netherlands.

Some examples of temperate forests

Among the various examples that we can cite of this type of forest on the planet, are the following:

Europe

In Europe one of the many examples of temperate forest is the German Black Forest (Schwarzwald), located in the state of Baden-Württemberg. This mountainous climate forest is made up of dense fir, fern and foxglove forests.

Black forest. Source: Pixabay

South America

In South America there are the temperate forest of the southern Andes and the forest of Patagonia.

The Andesa-Australes temperate forest is a Chilean biosphere reserve, which brings together several national parks with a high amount of flora and fauna. This particular forest is made up of valuable remnants of forests not intervened by man.

Temperate forest of the Southern Andes, Villarica National Park, Chile. Source: Roswo, Rosenwirth-Dia own work Original: KB-Diapositiv at

The temperate forest of Patagonia presents thousands of plant and animal species, in primary forests whose climate is humid, with annual temperature variations. It is located between southwestern Argentina and southern Chile.

Temperate forest of Mexico

The temperate forest of Mexico is located in mountainous areas whose climate is temperate, that is, it can range between -3 ° C and 18 ° C depending on the season of the year.

The flora of the temperate forest of Mexico contains 50% of the existing pine species in the world and one third of the oak species, for a total of 50 species of pine and 200 of oak.

On the other hand, it is estimated that apart from conifers, more than 7,000 different types of plants also inhabit this type of ecosystem. All this gives the Mexican temperate forest the condition of being evergreen.

Among the animal species that can be found easily in this region of the country are the white-tailed deer, the lynx, the armadillo, the raccoon, various types of snakes, birds (including some migratory ones), insects and mammals.

All these species exist thanks to the wealth of organic material found in the soils of temperate forests.

- Location of the Mexican temperate forest

The Mexican temperate forests are located mainly in the south of the country, near the Baja California region, in the Sierra Norte de Oaxaca, the Neovolcanic Axis, south of Chiapas and in the Sierras Madre Oriental and Occidental.

Thus, this type of forest occupies approximately 3,233 km², that is, more than 15% of the country's territory.

The maximum altitude at which these forests can be found is between 2,000 and 3,400 meters above sea level (masl).

- Weather

In the case of temperate forests in Mexico, the climate ranges between 12 ° C and 23 ° C throughout the year. However, the temperature is likely to reach zero degrees during winter. On the other hand, this ecosystem presents annual rainfall that reaches 1000 mm.

These climatic conditions make this type of forest the ideal place for the proliferation of multiple plant and animal species.

- Flora

The Mexican temperate forests have a wide variety of plant species. Among them the most representative are pines and oaks.

Pine trees

The Mexican temperate forest contains 50% of the existing pine species in the world (25 species out of 50) (Forestales, 1976). Some of the most common that can be found within this type of forest are the following:

• Acahuite (Pinus ayacahuite)
• Hortiguillo (Pinus lawsoni)
• White Ocote (Pinus montezumae)
• Chinese Ocote (Pinus oocarpa)
• Ocote colorado (Pinus patula)
• Brown Ocote (Pinus hartwegii)
• Lemon pine (Pinus pringlei)
• Chimonque pine (Pinus leiophylla)
• Chinese pine (Pinus teocote)
• Straight pine (Pinus pseudostrobus)
• Mad pine (Pinus cembroides)

Encinos

The Mexican temperate forest contains a third of the oak species that can be found in the world (200 out of 600). Some of the most common that can be found within this type of forest are the following:

• Barcino oak (Quercus magnoliifolia)
• White oak (Quercus candicans)
• Red oak (Quercus castanea)
• Holm oak (Quercus urbanii)
• Holm oak (Quercus laurina)
• Black oak (Quercus laeta, Quercus glaucoides)
• Quebracho oak (Quercus rugosa)
• Red oak (Quercus scytophylla)
• Tesmilillo oak (Quercus crassipes)
• Brush (Quercus mexicana)
• Oak (Quercus crassifolia)

Other species

Among the different types of plant species that can also be found in this ecosystem are the following tree species:

• Fir (Abies Religiosa)
• Ayarín (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
• Jaboncillo (Clethra mexicana)
• Strawberry tree (Arbutus xalapensis)
• Spruce (Abies duranguensis)
• Willow (Salix PARAXA).
• Táscate (Juniperus deppeana)
• Tepozán (Buddleja americana)

It is also possible to find small bushes and herbs of the following species:

• Caltrop (Acaena elongata)
• Alfalfilla (Lupinus montanus)
• Myrtle (Gaultheria acuminata)
• Angel hair (Calliandra grandiflora)
• Cantaritos (Penstemon spp.)
• Capulincillo (Miconia hemenostigma)
• Coriander fern (Asplenium monanthes)
• Ferns (Dryopteris spp.)
• Herb of Carranza (Alchemilla pectinata)
• Blow grass (Oenothera speciosa)
• Toad grass (Eryngium sp.)
• Sweet herb (Stevia lucida)
• Rockrose (Baccharis heterophylla)
• Laurel (Litsea glaucescens)
• Lentrisk (Rhus virens)
• Manzanita (Acrtostaphylos pungens)
• Najicoli (Lamourouxia viscosa)
• Cimarrón Nanchet (Vismia camparaguey)
• Rosewood (Bejaria aestuans)
• Mountain tea (Satureja macrostema)
• Tlaxistle (Amelanchier denticulata)

It is possible that some orchids and bromeliads grow in the forest, attached to pines or oaks, especially in places with a higher percentage of humidity.

On the other hand, numerous species of fungi also grow in this forest, such as the following:

• Duraznillo (Cantharellus cibarius)
• Cemite mushroom (Boletus edulis)
• Sheep mushroom (Russula brevipes)
• Bud mushroom (Amanita caesarea)
• Fly swatter (Amanita muscaria)

- Fauna

The Mexican temperate forests have a diverse fauna, rich in mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds and insects. Here are some of these species:

Mammals

• Gray Squirrel (Sciurus aureogaster) and Northern Coati (Nasua narica)
• Flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans)
• Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)
• Serrano rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus),
• Lynx (Lynx rufus)
• Raccoon (Procyon lotor)
• Puma (Puma concolor)
• Opossum (Didelphis virginiana)
• White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
• Gray Fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus)

Reptiles

• Rattlesnake (Crotalus basiliscus)
• Black-tailed rattlesnake (Crotalus molossus)
• Transvolcanic rattlesnake (Crotalus triseriatus

Birds

• Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)
• Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis)
• Blue-throated bluebird (Sialia mexicana)
• Acorn Woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus)
• Greater Woodpecker (Picoides villosus)
• American kestrel (Falco sparverius)
• Chipes (Setophaga spp.)
• Clarin Goldfinch (Myadestes occidentalis)
• Ruby-throated hummingbird (Archilochus colubris)
• Red-breasted hawk (Accipiter striatus)
• Red buzzard (Selasphorus rufus)

Insects

• Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus)
• Beetles of the genus Plusiotis
• Pintito de Tocumbo (Chapalichthys pardalis)
• Picote tequila (Zoogoneticus tequila)
• Picote (Zoogoneticus quitzeoensis)
• Zacapu Shot (Allotoca zacapuensis)
• Painted (Xenotoca variata)
• Chegua (Alloophorus robustus)
• Mexcalpinques (Godeidae)

-Types of temperate forest in Mexico

In Mexico there are two types of temperate forests, known as temperate laurifolio and mixed.

Temperate laurel forest

This type of forest is also known as humid temperate forest, mountain cloud forest or cloud forest. It is characterized by being located at a height between 1,400 and 2,600 meters above sea level, in places near the sea and presenting rains spread throughout the year.

The average temperature in these forests ranges between 8.5 and 23 ° C, although during the winter the temperature can drop dramatically and below 0 ° C.

On the other hand, they present humid winds on the slopes near the sea (windstorms), low clouds or fog almost permanently and high atmospheric humidity every day of the year.

The most common plant species found within this type of temperate forest are tree ferns and epiphytic plants.

It is a type of forest that houses a great variety of plant species. It has trees at different levels, which for thousands of years have served as a refuge for numerous forms of life, protecting them from climatic changes.

About half of the tree species in the humid temperate forest shed their leaves at some point during the year. Also, they are usually species suitable to reproduce and live in lands with acidic soils.

They are ideal environments for the planting of good quality coffee, known as "high altitude coffee". They allow the conservation of biodiversity and produce large amounts of organic matter, which makes it possible to conserve the mineral cycles of water and some gases.

In Mexico, they appropriately occupy 1% of the country's territory, mainly on the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Sierra Norte de Chiapas and the Sierra Madre Oriental. The production of firewood, natural fibers, mother, medicines, and some foods depends on this type of forest.

Mixed temperate forest

Also known as Madrean pine-oak forests, this type of temperate forest can be found in the Neovolcanic Axis, and the Southern, Eastern and Western Sierras Madre. They extend to the southwestern region of the United States and northern Nicaragua.

Mixed temperate forests are those made up of oaks (broad-leaved trees) and conifers (pines). Some of these trees are deciduous, that is, they lose their leaves during some season of the year; and others are perennial, that is, they never shed their leaves.

This combination of tree species allows the forest floor to behave like a sponge, and retain a very high degree of humidity throughout the year.

Mixed temperate forests are located at an altitude of approximately 2,200 to 3,000 meters above sea level. They have a greater amount of rainfall in summer, and a drier climate in winter.

In the highest parts of these forests, conifers up to 25 meters high can be found. On the contrary, in the lower parts it is common to find oaks of maximum 7 meters in height.

The mixed temperate forest is essential to capture water, preventing flooding in areas surrounding it. It also contributes to the air purification process and its vegetation is essential for the conservation of numerous animal species.

References

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2. Bréda, N., Huc, R., Granier, A., and Dreyer, E. (2006). Temperate forest trees and stands under severe drought: a review of ecophysiological responses, adaptation processes and long-term consequences. Annals of Forest Science. 63 (6), 625-644. doi: 10.1051 / forest: 2006042
3. Evans, J. Youngquist, JA and Burley, J. (2004). Encyclopedia of forest sciences. Academic Press. pp 2093.
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5. Turner, IM (2001). The Ecology of Trees in the Tropical Rain Forest (Cambridge Tropical Biology Series). pp 316.