ATTILA THE HUN: BIOGRAPHY, BATTLES, DEATH, PERSONALITY - ARTE - 2025

Attila (c. 395 - 453) was king of the nomadic people known as the Huns. He was nicknamed "the scourge of God" by Western Europeans because of his fierceness at the time of battle and his supposed cruelty against Christians. The territories under the control of this military leader ranged from the Black Sea to Central Europe, and from the Danube to the Baltic Sea.

During the reign of Attila his power grew to rival that of both halves of the Roman Empire separately. At that time the centers of Roman power were in Constantinople (eastern) and Ravenna (western).

Attila, the Scourge of God, by Carlo Brogi, via Wikimedia Commons.

The exact origin of the Attila people is not known, although the most widespread theory is that they came from Asia, probably from China, and that they had migrated to Europe.

Attila ruled between 434 and 453. At first his reign was joint with his brother and then he took power alone by the death of his colleague, Bleda.

He carried out several invasions of the Balkans and once besieged the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, since then he began to collect taxes from the emperor based in Constantinople.

In 451 he tried to attack the Western Roman Empire, but suffered a defeat in the Catalan Fields. A year later, he led his hosts against the populations of northern Italy, terrorizing its inhabitants.

He left due to the intervention of Pope Leo the Great, who promised him tributes from the Western Empire.

Barbarian king

Illustration of Attila from the Nuremberg Chronicle, by Hartmann Schedel (1440-1514)

The Huns were illiterate, so they did not have any kind of historical record, what is known about them is thanks to the accounts of Westerners.

That was probably why he transcended as an evil, cruel, and ungodly ruler. However, this characterization is not shared by some historians.

However, the Roman use of "barbarian", applied to non-Roman peoples, should not be confused, since Attila was educated from a very young age to act as leader of his people and represent them before other rulers.

Another source, which shows it in a much more flattering light, is that of the Nordic sagas, in which it was given a high degree of importance. In his court there were members of different cultures, such as Germans, Romans and Greeks.

The Huns

The Hun people were settled east of the Volga from around 370. The Huns are considered to be by nature nomadic and were primarily warriors and shepherds.

The meat and milk from animal husbandry were the basis of the diet of that town, according to historical and archaeological studies.

In the military they stood out for their mounted archers and skill for throwing the javelin. In less than 100 years of settlement on European soil, the Huns succeeded in raising an Empire that struck fear in both halves of Roman territory at the time.

origins

The roots of the language of the Huns are not known, as well as the very origin of their people, who could not be located with certainty within Eurasia.

Some say that the origin must be Turkish because of the similarity it presents with modern Chuvash, spoken by the Russian Turks. Others think that the language of the Huns may have something to do with the Yenis.

The geographical origin has been debated for centuries, but the main theories assert that the Huns were descended from Mongols, Asian Turks and Ugrians, that is, natives of the area of ​​Hungary.

Biography

Early years

Attila was born in the city of Pannonia, currently known as Transdanubia in Hungary. The date on which it arrived in the world has been debated: while some suggest 395, others claim that it could be at any time between 390 and 410, 406 has also been indicated as possible years.

He belonged to one of the noble families of the Hun peoples: he was the nephew of the Ruga and Octar kings. His father, Mundzuck, was a military leader of great importance and was also the progenitor of Bleda, who ascended to the throne along with Attila in 434.

The young men who were perceived by the Romans as savages had actually received an education appropriate to their position as heirs to the Hun Empire.

They were trained in military and combat activities such as the handling of the sword, the bow and arrow, as well as the saddle of horses, since these were the main techniques used by the Hun warriors.

However, they did not neglect the diplomatic aspect, in which they also received lessons, both Bleda and Attila, during their youth. Both young men were able to speak Latin and Gothic fluently, in addition to their mother tongue.

Background

It is not known whether diarchies were the custom among the Huns or the successive rise of pairs of ruling brothers was mere chance. In the case of Ruga and Octar's mandate, the latter died in battle in 430.

The territory dominated by the Huns grew under the rule of Attila's uncles, reaching around the Danube and the Rhine. This forced many ancient inhabitants of the area, such as the Goths and other Germanic tribes, to flee to the Empire. Roman looking for shelter.

However, rebellions among the displaced Germanic peoples did not take long to affect the stability of Rome and Constantinople. They began to seize territories from the Gauls as the Huns controlled their former lands.

In the times of Ruga and Octar, the Hungarian Empire had a great cultural and racial diversity, some assimilated to the customs of their new rulers, while others decided to preserve their own beliefs and codes.

In Rome the services of the Huns as mercenaries were highly valued. Then they realized that they had only strengthened their enemy by trying to use it and that "they had become slaves and masters of the Romans."

Ascent

The Hun King Ruga died in 434. Some accounts of the time say that while he was trying to attack the Eastern Roman Empire, a lightning strike struck his body, which ended his life immediately.

Then the sons of Mundzuck, Attila and Bleda, assumed the reins of the Hun Empire and followed the path of greatness traced by their ancestors. A conflict developed with Theodosius II, who refused to return to a group of Huns who sought refuge on its borders.

Conflicts with the Byzantines

Peace between the Huns and the Eastern Romans came in 435, when both sides decided to meet in Margus, the city after which the treaty that the two peoples accepted was named.

After getting double their annual tributes, the return of the fugitives, eight solids per captured Roman soldier, and the free trade of Hun merchants with Romans, Attila and Bleda decided it was time for peace with their neighbors.

This period of calm was used by Theodosius to reinforce his defenses, especially those that were close to the Danube. Likewise, the Byzantine ordered the creation of the first maritime wall in history.

Attila, by Eugène Delacroix, via Wikimedia Commons.

Meanwhile the Huns focused their attention on the Sassanid Empire, with whom they had several clashes, but who finally managed to repel the invasion that Attila and Bleda had in mind.

The end of peace

The truce between the Huns and the Romans ended in 440, when the men of Attila and Bleda attacked again, above all, the merchants who were settled in the areas near the north of the Danube.

The Huns' excuse was that Theodosius II had not complied with what was agreed in the peace of Margus, since he had stopped paying tributes. In addition, they alleged that the bishop of the city of Margus had attacked Hungarian royal tombs and desecrated them.

The Romans had among their plans to hand over the bishop, the apparent cause of the entire conflict, but while they were talking about the convenience of this movement they were betrayed by the same bishop who gave Margus to the Huns.

The first attack by Attila's men was on the Illyrian cities, which were unguarded by the military conflicts that had kept the Eastern Roman Empire occupied, such as attacks by the Sassanid Empire and the Vandals in Africa and Carthage.

This facilitated the passage of the Huns who found an open field in the Balkans in 441 and managed to occupy and devastate different cities in the area such as Belgrade and Sirmium.

Truce

During a brief period there was a cessation of hostilities between the Huns and the Romans of the east, around 442. That pause was used by Theodosius II to make his troops return to the Empire, likewise, he minted a large quantity of coins.

Because of the advances he had made, the Roman emperor thought that he could reject and face the advance of Attila and his brother towards his capital. However, in 443 the Huns attacked again and took Ratiava while besieging Naissus.

Then they took Sérdica, Filípolis and Acadiópolis. In addition, they mounted a siege of Constantinople.

Second agreement with the Romans

Seeing his capital surrounded by the enemy, Theodosius II knew that he had to make a pact, since defeat seemed imminent for his men and, consequently, for the eastern Roman Empire. The peace Attila requested on that occasion was much harsher and more humiliating than the previous ones.

Constantinople had to pay 6,000 Roman pounds of gold, simply for the damage caused to the Huns by breaking the previous pact. In addition, the annual tribute was increased to 2,100 pounds of gold. Finally, the ransom for prisoners that the Huns had captured would be 12 solids per head.

Happy with the latest agreement, the Huns returned to their lands. Little is known of what happened to the Hun Empire at the time they kept peace with the Romans, as the historical records that exist were made by the latter.

Death of Bleda

The news that did transcend the Hungarian borders was the death of Bleda around 445. The most widespread theory is that he was murdered during a hunting trip by his brother Attila, who wanted to control the full power of the Empire.

However, another version states that Bleda tried to kill Attila first and, thanks to the skills and combat talents of the second, he was able to prevail and end the life of his brother and attacker earlier, which led him to become the only one ruler of the Huns.

Bleda's widow continued to be part of Attila's court and held important positions within the territory controlled by her brother-in-law.

Last attack on Constantinople

In 447 Attila turned his army once more against the eastern Roman Empire, since they had stopped presenting tributes to him. He charged first against Mesia. That year there was a great battle in Utus.

Although the Huns were victorious, their numbers fell thanks to the performance of the Roman military leader Arnegisclus. Attila managed to quickly capture Marcianopolis, a city that he completely destroyed almost immediately.

Constantinople was not in a good position since a recent earthquake had taken a toll on its walls, just as the plague did on its population.

However, knowing that the capital of the Empire was in danger, the works began quickly and in less than two months the defenses were repaired. That, plus the casualties suffered at Utus, caused Attila to divert her attention from Constantinople.

According to the chronicles of the time, Attila took control of more than a hundred cities of the Eastern Roman Empire, in the areas of Illyria, Thrace, Mesia and Scythia.

The terms of the peace that was reached between Theodosius and Attila are not exactly known; but it is known that a seat belt, from which all the settlers were evicted, was created in the northern territories of the eastern Roman Empire.

Attacks on the Western Empire

Attila had long maintained cordial relations with the western half of the Roman Empire, especially through his collaborations with Aetius, one of the most influential generals in the area.

In 450 an invasion of the lands of Tolosa, controlled by the Visigoths, was planned. In that campaign Huns and Romans would participate together, since Attila and Valentinian III had reached an agreement for the procedure.

However, thinking that he had subdued the eastern Roman Empire, Attila felt that he could instill the same fear in the other half of the Roman dominions. Furthermore, an opportunity arose to make their claims legitimate.

Honoria's misunderstanding

Honoria, Valentinian's sister was about to be forced into an unwanted marriage to a high-ranking Roman official and believed that Attila could help her get out of the engagement.

He sent the King of the Huns a letter asking for his help in the problem and attached his engagement ring. Attila decided to interpret the situation as a marriage proposal by the Roman emperor's sister and gladly accepted it.

Then, Attila's demands were in accordance with the rank he held and he asked Valentinian as a dowry for half the western Roman Empire in order to carry out the marriage between himself and the emperor's sister.

Valentinian quickly sent emissaries to clarify the situation, his messengers tried to explain to Attila that at no time was an arrangement with him attempted to secure his union with Honoria.

In addition, Valentinian expelled his sister from his lands, so that it was clear to Attila that his demands would not be met since there was no pact on the table. The Hun interpreted all this as an offense against himself and marched west with his army.

Outpost of the Huns

Attila marched with an army of approximately 200,000 men towards the dominions of the Western Roman Empire. His first conquest was the area of ​​modern Belgium, from where he intended to continue advancing towards the rest of Gaul.

The stories about the excesses of the Huns in the Eastern Empire had transcended borders and populations fled en masse before the possible advance of Attila's men. People escaping the threat did not mind leaving entire cities behind.

Attila's next prizes were the cities of Trier and Metz. Then came the moment when the Hun first tasted the bitter taste of defeat in 451.

Battle of the Catalan Fields

King Theodoric I and Attila's old friend, Flavio Aetius, teamed up to protect the territory from fierce invaders. The parties faced each other on the Catalan Fields. Romans and Visigoths took high ground and gained the upper hand against the Huns.

Theodoric died in battle and his people fought the fight for the feeling that the loss of their leader produced in them as he fought alongside them side by side.

At dusk, the Huns returned to their camp, from which they did not leave until the time of their return. The enemies decided not to attack them so their treasures from the looting were left intact.

Return of Attila

After the victory in the battle of the Catalan Fields, the shadow of destruction that Attila left in his wake seemed a thing of the past for the Romans. However, the Hun had not abandoned her ideal, she had only returned home to regain strength.

In 452 he again attacked the western part of the Roman Empire. He continued to claim his claims to marry Honoria and at that time directed his forces towards Italy.

The first place he arrived was Aquileia, a city that he destroyed to its foundations. It is said that she destroyed it in such a way in that attack that no one knew where the city stood after the Huns passed through it.

These actions, together with the legend that preceded Attila, made the populations once again emigrate in terror looking for an isolated territory that the Huns did not want to attack on their way to Rome.

It was around this time that Venice was born, which was protected by being surrounded by lakes and having extremely difficult access.

It is known that the Huns made their camp on the banks of the Po River. However, various ideas about his stay in that place have been exposed and the fact has not yet been clarified by historians.

Agreement with Rome

Some think that the Huns decided to remain camped in the Po and not to attack for superstitious reasons, since it was said that whoever charged against the holy city died quickly and inevitably.

Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila, by Raphael, via Wikimedia Commons.

Others think that Attila's stop in the area was due to the search for food for his men, since Italy had suffered from a famine that made it difficult to find enough resources to support an army as large as that of the Huns.

It has also been said that the plague affected the members of the Hun army and that is why they had to stop at their camp while the warriors' forces stabilized.

Pope Leo the Great was commissioned to negotiate with Attila. The terms they reached are not known, but after the meeting held by the Huns they returned to their lands in Hungary without causing further problems for the Western Roman Empire.

Death

Image of Attila enthroned. Date: 1360, 800 years after Attila's death.

Atila died in March 453 in the Tisza Valley. Many versions about his death were related both by his contemporaries and by later authors who analyzed the death of the King of the Huns.

After marrying a young woman named Ildico and attending a large celebratory banquet for their wedding, Attila died. Some claim that she had a nosebleed and choked on her own blood.

Others have argued that he may have died from a hemorrhage in the esophagus from heavy alcohol consumption on the wedding night. It has also been said that Attila may have suffered ethyl poisoning for the same reason.

In a different version it was narrated that Attila was assassinated by his new wife on the day of their marriage, then it was claimed that the whole plot was planned by his staunch enemy, the Eastern Roman Emperor.

His men were deeply mourned for the loss of one of the best warriors and kings the people of the Huns had counted on. They covered their faces with blood and later rode in circles around Attila's tent.

The Death of Attila, by unknown author, via Wikimedia Commons.

Tomb

Attila's last resting place could be in the middle of the Tisza river. The flow was separated to bury it in the middle, then it is believed that it was returned to its natural course to cover the Hun's resting place.

Likewise, it is believed that Attila's body was deposited in three coffins:

For the riches obtained in the looting, the first of them was made of gold and the second of silver, while the third was made of iron as a symbol of his skills for war.

In 2014 they located a supposed tomb of Attila in Budapest, but it was later discovered that it could be a fake.

A similar narrative existed but with Gilgamesh as the protagonist. Furthermore, the fact that the tomb of the latter was actually found under the Euphrates River made many think that Attila may have had a similar resting place on the Tisza.

Military scope

Attila's name went down in history as a military reference, both for his own combat capabilities, and for his innate ability to command soldiers with different cultures and make them the most powerful army of his time.

Like the rest of the Huns, he was adept at riding horses. The relationship of that town with the equines was extremely close: it was said that the children were taught to ride when they could stand up.

The young heir received a privileged education as part of the royal family. Among the aspects that they developed in Attila, one of the main ones was his performance as a warrior.

The Hun is considered a striking example of the stereotype known as the prince of war.

Uniform

The Huns used to use a kind of leather armor with which they protected their body while allowing them to retain their mobility in battle. They smeared it externally with grease, so that it was waterproof.

The helmets were made of leather, then an iron coating was placed on them. A chainmail protected the neck and upper part of the body, that piece was very useful when receiving enemy attacks from a distance.

However, the Huns were not well adapted to walking distances, as they wore soft leather boots, which gave them great comfort when riding their horses.

Combat of the Huns

According to some descriptions, such as that of Ammianus Marcelinus, the Huns could fight in columns as was regularly customary in the battles of the time. However, Attila's men rarely used this formation.

The normal thing for these warriors was to fight without a defined order, spreading rapidly throughout the field and regrouping with the same speed.

In addition, they always took advantage of the advantage of fighting at a distance thanks to the bow and arrow, which they could shoot comfortably from the back of their horses.

In fact, one of Attila's preferred strategies was to hide his men until the enemies were within range of his bows.

Just because they preferred ranged combat doesn't mean they didn't fight fiercely when they encountered the enemy: survivors claimed they were fearless and didn't seem to fear for their lives when it came to fighting.

Physical description of Atila

Attila the Hun in an illustration from the Poetic Edda (1893)

According to Priseus, who knew him in person, as he served as an emissary of the Romans in the court of Attila, the king of the Huns was a small man, broad-chested, with a large head, small eyes, a thin and thin beard., short nose and brown skin.

According to this description, it appears that Attila had a common phenotype among Asian peoples, which corresponds to some of the theories about the origin of the Huns.

There are no other contemporary descriptions of Attila. However, he has generally been depicted as a man with mixed Caucasian-Asian features.

Some have argued that this town made physical deformations to the infants by bandaging their faces to maintain the use of the traditional helmet of the military uniform. Such a practice would atrophy the nose of individuals.

Another characteristic that has been commented is that, due to the habit of riding on horseback, their legs had atrophied and hence they were people of such short stature compared to Europeans.

Personality and character

The classic description of Attila the Hun that has passed to the present day is that of a soulless, bloodthirsty, evil, treacherous being who pursued no purpose beyond creating chaos and destroying everything in his path.

However, that was the point of view reported by both his enemies and the peoples oppressed by them, which lasted to this day. In Hungarian folk tales, Attila is shown as a good king and to whom his subjects owed a high degree of appreciation.

In some accounts of the time he is also shown as a man generous to his allies and greatly loved by his people who, in fact, suffered with deep pain the loss of King Attila.

The civilized barbarian

Usually the term barbarian has been misrepresented as it was used by the Romans. They named any civilization that was not Roman, regardless of the degree of culture or education of a particular individual.

Attila was well educated, it is believed that he spoke Latin, Gothic, Hun and probably Greek. Furthermore, he had been instructed in diplomatic arts. Its capital had beautiful wooden structures decorated with good taste and upholstered with fine rugs.

Attila's Feast, by Mór Than, via Wikimedia Commons

However, he was a modest man, leaving luxuries for those of lesser rank than himself and content to dress simply, using wooden glasses and plates, while the rest of his court displayed their riches everywhere.

Name

The issue of the roots of the Hun language has been long debated. The same has happened with the etymological origin of "Atila", the name of the most famous king of this town.

Some have argued that the roots of "Attila" must be Gothic and that would make his name an equivalent to "little father" or "little father". Others who support Turkish origins have given a wide range of possible roots including "universal ruler" or "knight."

It has also been said that it is the Volga himself who gave Attila his name, since in Altáico the name of the river was "Atil.

In stories of Nordic origin Attila was known as "Atli", while in Germanic legends he was commonly called "Etzel".

Succession

His three sons came into dispute after Attila's death in 453. The eldest son, Elak, was officially appointed as king, although all the brothers claimed the title for themselves.

Although what they decided was to divide the kingdom equally, to divide riches and warriors in a similar way between Elak, Dengizik and Ernak, each of them silently yearned to achieve what their father: to be the sole heirs and rulers of the Huns.

This is how they led the kingdom of Attila to ruin and destruction. The internal struggle between the heirs gave Aldarico the opportunity to take up arms against the rule of the Huns.

Aldaric was a leader of the Gepids who had been loyal to Attila in life, but amid the chaos left in his wake by the King of the Huns when he passed away, his former henchman knew it was time to lead his own. people towards freedom.

The revolt that gave control of Pannonia to the Gepids took its toll on the strength of Attila's divided brothers and successors. More than 30,000 Huns soldiers perished in the uprising, including the older brother, Elak.

The end of the Hun Empire

Other tribes followed the example of the Gepids and quickly the flame of independence began to burn in the peoples once subdued by the Huns.

Around 465, Dengizik and Ernak tried to reach a commercial agreement with the Eastern Roman Empire. However, his proposals were immediately rejected by the Byzantines, who also knew that their strength was not the same in Attila's time.

In 469 Dengizik, the second son of the Hun leader, who had assumed the leadership of the kingdom after the death of his brother Elak, died in Thrace and his head was brought to display in Constantinople as a token of victory over the Huns.

Then Ernak, the last known son of Attila, settled for Dobruja and the few other lands that were granted to him and his people. That was the end of the vast empire of the Huns

Influence

The changes that Attila created in life were great, he managed to expand his borders to the center of Europe, dominating the most diverse peoples that originally inhabited the areas through which he passed, also to the east.

He changed the political dynamic, instilling great fear in both rulers of the Roman Empire, who had to pay tribute to the Hun military in order to maintain peace and control of their own regions.

Although entire cities were razed by the Huns, new settlements also emerged, one of which over the years became one of the most prosperous cities on the European continent: Venice.

After his physical disappearance and, consequently, that of his Empire due to the chaotic conflict in which his three heirs were plunged, he continued to generate changes in the political dynamics of the areas that were under his influence.

Western roman empire

The death of Attila marked the end of the power of the western half of the Roman Empire. Valentinian III decided to kill in 454, a year after the death of the King of the Huns, Flavius ​​Aetius, who was one of the most prominent military personnel he had, but who had been close to Attila.

In 455 Petronius Maximus, together with other friends of Aetius, assassinated Valentinian III and seized the power of the Empire. Around that same date, an invasion of vandals arrived, which rose as one of the new military forces.

New barbarians

Genseric, the Vandal leader, sacked Rome and further weakened the troubled landscape of the Western Empire. As Valentinian died without issue, an election was held in which Ávito was crowned emperor in 455.

However, the new ruler of Rome was supported and, to a large extent, controlled by the Visigoths. That was the reason why his mandate only lasted two years after which he ascended to the Majorian throne.

From then on the Vandals became one of the main enemies of Rome, which was losing its strength as it found itself in a spiral of rapid changes of ruler that only contributed to its destruction.

East

The Gepids, who had been Attila's noble vassals during his lifetime, led by one of his trusted men, Aldarico, achieved their independence, as did many other tribes who allied with them.

They managed to get tributes from Marciano, the Eastern Roman Emperor. This shows the power that the peoples once subdued by Attila had achieved in a short time.

The Gepids managed to control the area of ​​Pannonia and then Sirmium allied with Swabians, Sarmatians and Sciros. However, the great opponents who stood up to the new alliance were the Ostrogoths.

At that time, the Ostrogoths managed to seize Sirmium, which was a city that offered a privileged position as it was between Italy and Constantinople, which provided a comfortable place to carry out military maneuvers in both territories.

References

1. Thompson, E. (2019). Attila - Biography, Battles, Death, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: britannica.com.
2. En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Attila. Available at: en.wikipedia.org.
3. Mark, J. (2019). Attila the Hun. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Available at: ancient.eu.
4. Man, J. (2006). Attila the Hun. London: Bantam Books.
5. Rice, E. (2010). The life and times of Attila the Hun. Hockessin, Del.: Mitchell Lane.