ARCHEOLOGY: HISTORY, WHAT IT STUDIES, BRANCHES, IMPORTANCE, METHODS - SCIENCE - 2025

The archeology is the discipline that studies the behavior, the behavior and beliefs of human groups through the examination of material remains that man has made in the course of time.

These materials that archaeologists investigate are of various shapes and sizes; They can be from small objects such as clay pots or arrowheads, to large buildings such as pyramids, bridges and temples.

Archaeologists exploring an ancient cemetery (2012) Via Wikimedia Commons.

Because the age of man-made objects and structures is lost in time, archeology has perfected a wide variety of methods to recover, study and analyze them. For this reason, it has adopted techniques and theories from other disciplines; it has also developed its own methods and theoretical bases.

In conclusion, it can be established that archeology has a wide time line, which constitutes its margin of study and analysis; This covers from the beginning of human life to the present day.

Origin and history

Currently, archeology is a very well developed discipline, however, critical knowledge of its history is not very long. This is due to the little interest that researchers have developed in the history of this discipline and its processes.

Consequently, several authors affirm that, despite the fact that modern archeology is approximately 150 years old, the true historical deliberation on this branch of knowledge is the result of only the last three decades.

The origins

The bases of archeology arise from man's need to know his origins. In this regard, many ancient cultures - such as the Greek, Egyptian, and Mesoamerican - believed that humanity was tens of thousands of years old.

However, these beliefs were based on myths, which granted the gods the creation of the world and humanity. On the other hand, in Medieval Europe the only reference to the origins of man was in written documents such as the Bible.

Later, in the seventeenth century, attempts to know the moment of human creation concluded with the famous calculation made by the Irish Archbishop James Ussher (1581-1656), who determined -according to the information provided by biblical writings- that the world was created at noon on October 23, 4004 BC

The collector stage

During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, aristocratic families and kings collected ancient works of art and artifacts simply out of curiosity or power.

Later, with the aim of increasing the collections, great excursions were made to the places where these objects were possibly. Thus the cities of Herculaneum (1738) and Pompeii (1748) were discovered.

These findings, despite being very important, were not exhaustively explained at the time by the disciplines.

Some conceptual advances

One of the works that helped in the search for new avenues of knowledge for archeology was carried out by the Danish naturalist Niels Stensen (1638-1686), who in 1669 drew the first geological profile where the idea of ​​temporality was embodied in the superposition of these layers.

Likewise, one of the first applications of the concept of temporality occurred in 1797, when the British John Frere (1740-1807) discovered in a quarry in Hoxne (Suffolk, England) a series of stone tools belonging to the Lower Palaeolithic.

XIX century

It was not until the 19th century that archeology as a discipline began to adopt scientific methodology in its research and analysis.

At this time, the works of Christian J.Thomsen (1788-1865) determined the existence of the three ages in the history of humanity, these being the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. With this theory, the existence of time periods in the evolution of humanity was established.

At the end of this century, archeology managed to conform as a discipline; the figure of the archaeologist became professional and the findings began to be scientifically documented.

The 20th century and the new archeology

In the 20th century, what is known as the new archeology emerged, with a very critical position regarding the procedures and interpretations applied to date. Currently, the new archaeologists raise the need for a deep and critical review of the nature and practice of archeology.

What does archeology study? (Object of study)

Archeology is a field of practical action that analyzes - from materiality and over time - human communities and societies, together with their environmental interrelationship. This implies the study and preservation of that materiality, which determines the duality of its practice.

Consequently, archeology is characterized by its temporal dimension, which allows it to work and investigate all human periods without distinction. Its study ranges from prehistoric, classical and medieval archeology, to historical archeology and the archeology of the present.

Branches of archeology

There are many branches of archeology, some of which overlap with each other.

Prehistoric archeology

Study the material records of humanity in the periods prior to the invention of writing.

Historical archeology

Study the forms of writing and the records of past cultures. For this reason, it analyzes the everyday world of people; it is a union between history and anthropology, through which the archaeologist seeks to know the human processes and customs that originated today's societies.

Industrial archeology

Study buildings and remains dating from the period after the Industrial Revolution.

Ethnoarchaeology

Analyze the past through the present. That is, this discipline studies the current living groups of hunter-gatherers in regions such as Australia and Central Africa and records how they organize, behave and use objects and utensils.

In this way, modern behavior analysis can help reveal the customs and behaviors of the past.

Classical archeology

Study ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. This discipline encompasses the Greek Empire, the Roman Empire, and the transition between the two (the Greco-Roman period). In the same way, depending on the human groups studied, Egyptian archeology and Mesoamerican archeology have emerged.

Finding of the face of the god Hermes. Via wikimedia commons.

Environmental archeology

It is the study of the environmental conditions that existed when the different civilizations developed.

Experimental archeology

It is the study and reconstruction of the techniques and processes used in the past to create objects, art and architecture.

Underwater archeology

This discipline analyzes the remains of materials found under water due to shipwrecks or floods. Underwater archeology uses special techniques and sophisticated diving equipment to carry out these studies.

Archeology of cultural resource management

Evaluate the archaeological remains found in sites where construction is taking place. In this way, critical information is recorded and the archaeological find is preserved before the site is destroyed or covered.

Importance to society

Archeology supplies the historical knowledge of all societies and their members; therefore, it shows us the advances and achievements of human cultures in all times and spaces.

Likewise, archeology protects, preserves and presents the material past of human history, so that what humanity is today is defined in the findings and analysis of archeology.

On the other hand, archaeological knowledge is used by researchers in the area to support or connect subsequent analyzes. However, many authors draw attention to the correct use of this knowledge in archaeological narratives.

In short, archeology, by studying the human groups of the past, produces historical knowledge that serves the humanity of the present to understand their current practices and the challenges of the future.

Methods and techniques used in archeology

Today, there are a wide variety of methods and approaches that have had a positive impact on the evidence-gathering and interpretation procedures used by archeology.

Tools and equipments

Archaeologists use a wide variety of equipment, tools, and techniques. Some are created specifically for archeology and others are borrowed from other disciplines. Common archaeological tools include shovels and trowels for removing dirt, brushes and brooms, containers for transporting dirt, and sieves.

For the most delicate excavations, archaeologists use small, fine tools. Whereas, if the work is on a larger scale, excavators are used to remove only the top layer of the soil.

Survey and mapping techniques

Using images obtained from satellites, space shuttles and airplanes, archaeologists identify the typology of the surface; while geophysical exploration tools - such as penetration magnetometers and radars - are used to evaluate the characteristics of the subsurface.

Nowadays, electronic devices are also used to make maps of a certain area.

Radiocarbon or Carbon-14 dating

In 1947, Willard Libby showed that organic matter emits certain levels of radioactivity. This occurs because carbon-14 in the atmosphere combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO ₂), which is incorporated by plants during photosynthesis, later passing into the food chain.

In this way, when a living being dies, it stops assimilating carbon-14, decreasing the amount of the isotope over time. Using this knowledge, Libby was able to successfully date various samples.

The main application of carbon-14 dating is in archeology. The technique consists of measuring the radiation coming from a sample; This gives the current level of carbon-14 decay. Then, by means of a formula, the age of the sample is calculated.

What does an archaeologist do?

Today, archeology uses the scientific method to conduct its research. These are the steps to follow during an archaeological study:

Formulation of the problem to be investigated and the hypothesis to be tested

Before carrying out studies and excavations, archaeologists consider the problem to be solved and formulate the hypothesis. In other words, they consider the reason for which to carry out the study. This previous step is supported by a search for information that will serve to structure the entire methodological framework of the research.

The necessary information is provided by myths and stories, historical reports, old maps, farmers' accounts of finds in their fields, satellite photographs showing non-visible schematics, and the results of subsurface detection methods.

Survey and evaluation of the surface

The places identified through the collection of the information are plotted on a map. These maps constitute the first result or record during the archaeological investigation.

The archaeologists then assess and record the archaeological site with great accuracy. This process is carried out in order to safeguard the entire context of objects and structures.

The site is divided into squares to facilitate the location of each discovery and a detailed diagram of the site is created. Subsequently, an easily identifiable reference point is established at a known height.

In this way, in each square the objects are located vertically - in relation to the reference point - and horizontally according to the sides of the square and the structures.

Data collection and recording

In this stage, objects, structures and the physical environment where they are found are analyzed and studied. To do this, they are photographed, drawn and detailed notes are taken; Changes in soil texture, color, density, and even odor are also noted.

The dirt removed from the object is sifted to recover other important elements such as seeds, small bones or other elements. These findings as a result of the sieving are also recorded in great detail.

Laboratory and conservation

Ancient objects found underground or underwater must be treated appropriately once they are exposed to the air. This work is carried out by competent specialists.

Generally, conservation is carried out in a laboratory and the process consists of cleaning, stabilizing and the complete analysis of the archaeological find. However, sometimes (and depending on the state of the objects), the conservation process begins in the field and ends in the laboratory.

Interpretation

At this stage, the archaeologist interprets the findings and tries to explain the historical process of the place. Specialists indicate that this interpretation is always incomplete because the complete record is never obtained. For this reason, the archaeologist assesses what he gets, reflects on what is missing, and develops a theory about what happened.

Publication

The end result of any scientific process is the publication of the findings, maps and photographs along with an interpretation. This publication must be accurate and detailed so that other researchers can use it as a basis for their research.

References

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