VICEROYALTY OF THE RÍO DE LA PLATA: CAUSES, HISTORY, POLITICS - HISTORY - 2025

The Virreinato del Río de la Plata was a territorial entity within the Spanish Empire, established by King Carlos III of Spain in 1776. Before its creation, the territories that formed it were part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. The Viceroyalty encompassed much of South America.

Thus, it included, according to the current names, Argentina, Bolivia, Uruguay, Paraguay, some areas of Brazil and northern Chile. Buenos Aíres was chosen as its capital.

The separation of these lands from the Viceroyalty of Peru and its formation as a new entity had several causes. Among them, the pressure suffered by the Spanish crown from the Portuguese incursions from Brazil, in addition to the danger posed by the English attacks.

The Viceroyalty was divided into 8 municipalities. At the top of his political organization, in addition to the Spanish king, was the Viceroy. Besides, there were other public offices that administered and managed the minor territorial divisions.

From 1810, rebellions began to break out against the Spanish authorities. Finally, the Viceroyalty began to disintegrate and, after long years of war, the various territories that made it up were declaring their independence.

Causes of its creation

Pedro Mendoza, in 1524, captained the first incursions into the Río de la Plata. This is how the colonization of that part of America began.

At first, all those conquered territories were part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Already then, Buenos Aires, which had been founded in 1580, was growing to become one of the commercial centers of the entire Spanish Empire.

The constitution of the Virreinato del Río de la Plata was due to various political, military, commercial, economic and administrative factors.

In 1776, Carlos III signed the laws that created the Viceroyalty, although on a provisional basis. Two years later, the monarch ratified his definitive foundation.

Territorial problems

The creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada, in 1739, made the Viceroyalty of Peru, the entity to which these territories belonged, limited to the lands south of the equator. Among these were the captaincy general of Chile, the government of Tucumán, and the government of Río de la Plata.

Within the Spanish colonies, Tucumán and the Río de la Plata were those that contributed the least economic benefits to the metropolis, in addition to having a low population density.

The Bourbon reforms tried to change the system of government in the colonies. On the one hand, it was intended to reduce the influence of local elites and, on the other, to increase the economic benefits for Spain.

Both circumstances affected the southern territories of the Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1771, the Real Audiencia de Charcas, with jurisdiction in those areas, complained about the problems faced by the inhabitants of Paraguay, the Río de la Plata, and Tucumán. The most serious, the distance from the viceregal power centers, almost a thousand leagues from Buenos Aires.

The proposed solution was to create a new Viceroyalty that would encompass the three aforementioned provinces, as well as the Corregimiento of Cuzco.

The Portuguese danger

The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed between Spain and Portugal, marked the zones of influence of the two countries in South America. However, the established limits were quite imprecise and the Portuguese soon expanded southward and into the interior of the continent from the area of ​​Brazil that belonged to them.

The confrontation was constant for decades, without the signing of a new agreement was of any use; the Swap Treaty of 1750.

In 1762, Pedro de Cevallos, governor of the Río de la Plata, launched an offensive to occupy Colonia and Río Grande, which were in Portuguese hands. However, Spain was defeated in the Seven Years' War, forcing Cologne to yield again.

In 1776, the Portuguese regained the Rio Grande, causing fear among the Spanish that they would attempt to conquer their possessions in the Plata basin. Buenos Aires itself had suffered an invasion attempt in 1763 and the English threatened Patagonia.

The great Spanish problem was the lack of resources of the Government of the Río de la Plata, left, in that aspect, a little to its fate on the part of the authorities of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

The Galleon Route

The Galleon Route was the name by which the Spaniards called the itinerary chosen to transport the wealth obtained in their American colonies to the peninsula.

For two centuries, Veracruz, in New Spain, and Portobelo, in Panama, had been the main ports of origin for loaded ships to leave for Spain.

This changed when, in 1739, the British attacked and destroyed Portobelo. The Spanish understood that they needed a safer route and the Río de la Plata was the most suitable alternative. This led to the need to increase the military presence in Buenos Aires to better defend the port.

Somewhat later, in 1778, King Carlos III eliminated the monopoly on trade. The new regulations allowed the use of 13 ports in Spain and 25 in America, including Buenos Aires and Montevideo.

History from creation to end

New map of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata.PNG: Franco-eisenhowerCoast, Rivers, modern borders, sea: Natural Earth (EPSG 102032) derivative work: rowanwindwhistler, via Wikimedia Commons

In October 1773, King Carlos III, a great promoter of the reforms in the colonial administration, requested reports from the Viceroy of Peru, the Royal Audience of Lima and the Governor of Buenos Aires on the possibility of creating an audience in Tucumán.

The Viceroy did not respond until January 1775, stating that it would be more effective to create a viceroyalty on the Río de la Plata with its capital in Chile.

Before the monarch decided anything, the Portuguese attacked several towns in the area, recovering the town of Río Grande. This precipitated the king's decision, who decided to create the viceroyalty but without installing the capital in Chile.

The personal viceroyalty

The first step in the creation of the new viceroyalty took place on July 27, 1776. On that day, the king appointed Pedro Cevallos, then governor of Madrid, as commander of an expedition to South America. Likewise, he gave him command of the district of the Royal Audience of Charcas, as well as the title of viceroy and captain general of the Corregimiento de Cuyo.

On August 1, the monarch promulgated a Royal Decree confirming the appointments:

"(…) my Viceroy, Governor and Captain General of those of Buenos Ayres, Paraguay and Tucumán, Potosí, Santa Cruz de la Çierra, Charcas, and of all the Corregimientos, towns and territories to which the jurisdiction of that Hearing extends"

In practice, it amounted to the creation of a personal viceroyalty in favor of Cevallos while he was in the territory. In addition, Carlos III eliminated for Cevallos all the formalities and requirements that the Laws of the Indies established for the viceroys.

The Cevallos expedition

The expedition commanded by Cevallos had an eminently military character. Its main objective was to end the Portuguese incursions into the Río de la Plata, as well as to dissuade the English from attacking the ports.

The territory comprised in that first Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata included parts of present-day Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and large areas that today are part of Paraná and Mato Grosso del Sur), bordering the Portuguese dominions.

Cevallos tried to push the Portuguese to the east, conquering several localities. On February 20, 1777, 116 Spanish ships reached Santa Catalina, forcing the defenders to surrender on March 5. Then he headed for Montevideo.

The expedition continued its offensive, conquering Colonia de Sacramento, the Santa Teresa Fortress and the San Miguel Fort. It only stopped when Spain and Portugal began to negotiate, which would lead to the signing of the Treaty of San Ildefonso.

Through this Treaty, Spain had to renounce Santa Catalina and the Río Grande, north of the Banda Oriental. Instead, their sovereignty over Colonia del Sacramento was agreed.

The permanent creation of the viceroyalty

Once the peace was signed, on October 15, 1777, Cevallos arrived in Buenos Aires. Almost a month later, he authorized free trade with Peru and Chile, which, together with the measure taken previously to prohibit the extraction of gold and silver if it did not pass through the Buenos Aires port, harmed Lima's merchants.

On October 27, 1777, Carlos III issued another Royal Decree with which he declared the Viceroyalty to be constituted. With this order, he ended his personal and exceptional character and meant the end of Cevallos's mission.

The new Viceroy, Juan José Vértiz y Salcedo, received command on June 29, 1778.

Royal Ordinance of Intendants

The Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata was divided into eight municipalities through a Royal Ordinance promulgated on January 28, 1782.

A year later, on April 14, 1783, a Royal Decree established the Royal Court of Buenos Aires, with jurisdiction in the province of the same name, the three of Paraguay, Tucuman and Cuyo. The official installation of that body took place in August 1785.

The English Invasions

England had started a very aggressive colonial policy at the beginning of the 19th century, directly clashing with French interests. Thus, they occupied the Cape, in South Africa, and taking advantage of the Spanish weakness, they sent an expedition from there to invade the Río de la Plata.

At first, the British movement was successful, occupying the city of Buenos Aires. Faced with this, Viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte fled to Córdoba, a city which he named the interim capital of the viceroyalty on July 14, 1806.

Eventually the British were defeated and forced to leave the area. However, in 1807 they made a new invasion attempt, although the end result was the same.

Napoleon Bonaparte and Joseph I

The Napoleonic invasion of Spain caused a political earthquake that reached all the American colonial territories. The French Emperor had the Spanish kings abdicated, placing his brother José I on the throne. As part of his strategy, he sent the Marquis de Sassenay to the Río de la Plata to try to get the Viceroy to swear allegiance to them.

When Bonaparte's envoy arrived in Buenos Aires, Viceroy Santiago de Liniers refused to recognize José I as King of Spain. Sassenay had to leave the city and moved to Montevideo. There he was arrested by the governor.

Meanwhile, on August 21, the authorities carried out an oath of recognition of King Fernando VII as Spanish sovereign. The Viceroy declared war on Napoleon and José I and recognized the Junta Suprema Central, the body created by the anti-French resistance in Spain to rule on behalf of Fernando VII.

Chuquisaca Revolution and La Paz Revolt

Despite the above, the atmosphere in the Viceroyalty was quite tense. On May 25, 1809, the Chuquisaca (Sucre) Revolution took place and the Royal Audience of Chacras, supported by pro-independence sectors, removed the governor and formed a government council.

In principle, the insurgents were loyal to Fernando VII and justified the insurrection on the suspicion that the Viceroy wanted to hand over the country to the Infanta Carlota de Borbón. However, supporters of independence began to gain influence and managed to spread the rebellion to La Paz.

Although both uprisings ended in failure, historians call the rebellion of La Paz America's First Libertarian Cry.

The May Revolution and the disintegration of the viceroyalty

The rebellions continued in the Viceroyalty, highlighting the so-called May Week in Buenos Aires. This occurred between May 18, 1810 and May 25. The result was the removal of Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros and his replacement by the First Government Junta.

The reaction of the Viceroy of Peru was to reincorporate into his territory the municipalities of La Paz, Potosí, Chuquisaca and Córdoba del Tucumás. In addition, Cochabamba and Salta del Tucumán were also annexed.

This decision was taken at the request of some authorities of the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata and, according to their words, it would only be maintained until the Viceroy of Buenos Aires could regain his position.

Similarly, the governor of the Intendency of Paraguay, Bernardo de Velasco, declared that he did not recognize the Junta, as well as his loyalty to King Fernando VII. However, on July 17, 1811, Velasco was dismissed by a governing junta chaired by Fulgencio Yegros, who hastened to make peace with Buenos Aires.

End of the Viceroyalty

Since 1811, the struggle between the supporters of independence and the royalists was continuous. One of the first uprisings took place in February of that same year, when the rural population of the Banda Oriental rejected the authority of Francisco Javier de Elío, who had been appointed Viceroy and had moved the capital to Montevideo.

The next two years resulted in important victories for the independentistas, under the command of Manuel Belgrano. Finally, on February 20, 1813, the royalist troops were expelled from Salta, leaving the southern provinces in the hands of the rebels.

The last Viceroy, Vigodet, surrendered in Montevideo on June 23, 1814, which meant the liberation of the Banda Oriental.

The war still continued for several years. On December 6, 1822, the entire territory of present-day Argentina was free from the Spanish military presence. They would still name, nominally, Olañeta as Viceroy of the Río de la Plata in May 1825, without knowing that he had died in combat.

Spain recognized the independence of Argentina in June 1860, of Bolivia in February 1861, of Paraguay in April 1882, and of Uruguay in October 1882.

Political organization

The first administrative organization of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, between 1776 and 1784, was composed of a single Audiencia. In addition, it included various governorates, governments and townships.

In 1778, the Superintendency of the Patagonian Establishments and, temporarily, the government of Fernando Poo and Annobón joined.

Intendances

The reforms promoted by Carlos III supposed a great change in the Viceroyalty. Thus, in 1784 eight municipalities were created, which were given the name of provinces. For their part, the townships came to be called parties and the Royal Court of Buenos Aires was reestablished.

Resident Authorities in Spain

The highest authority of the Viceroyalty was the Spanish king. With absolute powers, he appointed officials and issued laws.

On the other hand, the Council of the Indies, based in Madrid, had legislative and judicial functions and proposed to the king the names of high officials.

Finally, in the economic sphere it was the Casa de Contratación which controlled all commercial activity between the peninsula and America.

The Viceroy

On the ground, the king's representative and, therefore, the highest authority, was the Viceroy. Appointed by the monarch, he was in charge of dispensing justice, controlling the economy and evangelizing the indigenous people.

After the personal Viceroyalty of Cevallos, Carlos III appointed the first Viceroy of the Río de la Plata: Juan José de Vértiz. After him, twelve viceroys followed until the dissolution of the Viceroyalty.

The mayors governors

The eight municipalities of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata were administered by the mayors governors, appointed directly by the king. Their position lasted five years, after which they had to undergo a residence trial.

The Corregidores and the cabildos

The smallest instances, such as cities or towns, were administered by officials appointed for this purpose. Among these, the magistrates and mayors stood out, with different functions depending on the territory they were in charge of.

Social organization

Origin and race were the fundamental factors in the social structure of the Viceroyalty. At the top were the peninsular white Spaniards, followed by the Creoles, sons of the former but born in America.

In the lower part were indigenous and black brought from Africa as slaves to work in the fields or as servants.

On the other hand, the Catholic Church was one of the most important institutions in Río de la Plata, both for its political and economic power, and for the work of conversion of the indigenous people.

The main class

As noted, the upper class of the Viceroyalty was made up of whites from the metropolis. Among them, the most important were the high officials of the colonial administration, as well as the dignitaries of the Church. Likewise, wholesale merchants, landowners and businessmen had a prominent position.

Starting in the 18th century, a mercantile class appeared in Buenos Aires that accumulated much power. Many of them were already born in the Viceroyalty and were called criollos. This incipient bourgeoisie was the origin of an intelligentsia that would end up starring in the struggle for independence.

The popular class

During that time there was hardly a middle class like the one that appeared in Europe. Their place was occupied by retail merchants, minor officials, free artisans, or pulperos.

On the other hand, if there was a well-defined lower class. It was made up of sectors of the population of "mixed castes", that is, those whose origins were found in the miscegenation between the different ethnic groups.

Still at the beginning of the XIX century, these mestizos hardly possessed legal rights. Thus, they were prohibited from owning property, carrying weapons or opening a business.

The slaves

The need for labor had caused many Africans to be transferred to America as slaves. Although their number became important, different circumstances left very few alive during the 19th century.

The landowners

The haciendas and the estancias were two very typical agricultural and livestock exploitation systems in the colonies in America. In the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata, the landowners were subject to the authority of civil servants and large merchants, so they did not achieve the power they did in New Spain, for example.

In the peasantry, small rural owners, farmers and hired laborers stood out.

The Gaucho

One of the most characteristic inhabitants of the Viceroyalty was the gaucho, a typical figure of the pampas. At first they were semi-nomadic and specialized in working with cattle.

Natives

Although the Laws of the Indies protected the rights of the indigenous, in practice the large landowners used them as cheap labor. In addition to the mine, their presence was very frequent in the encomiendas and mitas.

Legally, the Indians could not be enslaved. However, they remained tied to the farms, as it was the duty of the landowners to provide them with some education and convert them to Catholicism.

In the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata, the situation of the indigenous people varied depending on their areas of origin. In the north, for example, the Guarani used to be brought to work in the encomiendas, working in the cultivation of cotton, tobacco and mate.

Economy

The dominant economic model in the Viceroyalty was the extractive-exporter. As in the rest of the Spanish colonies, there was no attempt to introduce some industrialization.

Cattle raising

Cattle were the base of the economy of the Río de la Plata, along with horse breeding. This activity far exceeded mining since the territories of the Viceroyalty were not too rich in these materials.

This caused the creation of a “leather culture”, since this material replaced others much more scarce, such as minerals, stone or wood.

Mining

The exception regarding the presence of minerals occurred in present-day Bolivia. Rich deposits of silver were found there, so the Spanish developed large-scale exploitations from the moment of the conquest.

Commerce

As in the rest of the Spanish colonies in America, trade in the Río de la Plata was fully regulated by the Spanish Crown. The regulations only allowed its inhabitants to trade with the metropolis or with other colonies and, in addition, all commercial activity was concentrated in a few hands.

The ports

The two main ports of the Virreinato del Río de la Plata had been fundamental in deciding its separation from the Viceroyalty of Peru and its constitution as an independent entity. The choice of Buenos Aires as the capital was decided because, from there, merchandise could be sent to a wide market.

However, Buenos Aires had some natural problems: its seabeds were muddy and deep-sea vessels could not moor in the port. Given this, Montevideo became the natural alternative, which caused clashes between the two cities.

Despite these disagreements, Montevideo also became a large commercial center, especially in the livestock sector. The main business of the city was transit trade, for which merchandise that passed through it had to pay a tax.

One of the most important changes related to the economy took place in 1797. That year, Viceroy Olaguer Feliú authorized the entry of foreign ships to the port of Buenos Aires, which was beginning to be affected by the existing tensions between the European powers.

References

1. Ministry of Culture Government of Spain. Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Obtained from pares.mcu.es
2. Pigna, Felipe. The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Obtained from elhistoriador.com.ar
3. Pelozatto Reilly, Mauro Luis. The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and its economy. Obtained from revistadehistoria.es
4. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Retrieved from britannica.com
5. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. Rio De La Plata, Viceroyalty Of. Retrieved from encyclopedia.com
6. Gascoigne, Bamber. Vice-royalty of La Plata: 1776-1810. Retrieved from historyworld.net
7. Globalsecurity. The Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. Retrieved from globalsecurity.org
8. Widyolar, Keith. May Revolution of Buenos Aires. Retrieved from newyorklatinculture.com