VICEROYALTY OF PERU: ORIGIN, HISTORY, ORGANIZATION AND ECONOMY - HISTORY - 2024

The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the political and administrative entities that the Spanish Empire created in its American colonies after the conquest. After subduing the Inca Empire and after a few years marked by the conflict between the conquerors, the king issued a Royal Decree in 1534 with which he created the Viceroyalty.

The territories that included the Viceroyalty of Peru were very wide. At its peak, it encompassed present-day Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, part of Argentina and Chile. Later, after the Bourbon reforms, he lost part of his dominions in favor of new viceroyalties.

Viceroyalty of Peru in 1650 - Source: Daniel Py, via Wikimedia Commons

Before that partition, which caused it to lose part of its importance, the Viceroyalty had been the main possession of the Spanish Empire. The wealth it produced, especially the minerals extracted in its mining deposits, provided great benefits to the Spanish crown.

At the beginning of the 19th century, as it happened in the rest of the continent, rebellions against the metropolis followed one another, which led to a war in which troops from the Río de la Plata also participated. After some years of conflict, the various territories of the Viceroyalty were declaring their independence.

Origin

The Spanish completed the military conquest of Peru in 1534, when the conquerors led by Francisco Pizarro took the city of Cuzco. With this, the Inca Empire disappeared and the Spanish rule in its former lands began.

Confrontation between the conquerors

Shortly after achieving their goal, the conquerors began to clash with each other. The disputes over who should hold power and which zone would correspond to each one, made Pizarro and his partner Diego de Almagro face each other from 1537.

Almagro was executed by his rivals in 1538, although that did not end the war. Thus, his son Almagro the boy managed to avenge his death when his followers assassinated Pizarro in 1541. Immediately, the almagristas named their leader governor of Peru and rebelled against the authorities appointed by the king of Spain.

Finally, Diego de Almagro el Mozo was defeated in the battle of Chupas. After being tried for treason, he was sentenced to death.

This conflict, which lasted even more in time, was the main cause of the creation of the Viceroyalty. The king, among other things, wanted to put an end to power disputes in the area.

History from creation to the end

Daniel Py, from Wikimedia Commons

In addition to trying to consolidate its authority, the Crown tried to end the abuses against the natives in the colony. To do this, Carlos I promulgated the so-called New Laws by which he created the Royal Court to administer civil and criminal justice. These laws prohibited forced labor by the Indians and abolished hereditary encomiendas.

Shortly after the promulgation of these laws, in 1542, the king ended the old governments of Nueva Castilla and Nueva León. In its place, he created the Viceroyalty of Peru. Its capital was established in Lima, then called the City of the Kings. The first Viceroy was Blasco Núñez de Vela

First viceroy

Blasco Núñez Vela was officially appointed viceroy on March 1, 1534. However, his authority was greatly reduced, since the supporters of Pizarro and Almagro (both now deceased) continued their war for power.

Finally, Gonzalo Pizarro assassinated Núñez Vela, provoking the wrath of the Spanish Crown. Carlos I sent Pedro de la Gasca to the Viceroyalty under the title of Peacemaker. His mission was to end the conflict and stabilize the territory.

Once in Peru, La Gasca began to convince Pizarro's supporters to leave him. His tactic was a success, since Gonzalo Pizarro's captains went over to the side of the Peacemaker when, in 1548, they were to face a battle near Cuzco.

Pizarro's defeat was crushing, being captured and executed for high treason to the king.

Cast of Guaynamarina

Apart from his main mission, Pedro de la Gasca, also had the task of restoring order. To do this, he recovered the order and distributed them through the “Distribution of Guaynamarina”.

This division was intended to end the abuses of the indigenous people, appointing a government official as responsible for assigning workers to each exploitation. However, in practice this did not end the situations of abuse and semi-slavery.

The next Viceroy, appointed in 1551, was Antonio de Mendoza y Pacheco, who had held the same position in New Spain.

Viceroy Álvarez de Toledo

Attempts to bring stability to the Viceroyalty of Peru were unsuccessful until the appointment of Francisco Álvarez de Toledo as viceroy. His mandate, between 1569 and 1581, is considered the most efficient in the entire history of the territory, managing to establish the political framework that would govern the area for many years.

As soon as he arrived at what were to be his domains, Álvarez de Toledo began to study everything that had happened in previous years, as well as the policies followed. Once the information was analyzed, he began to correct the errors.

His first step was to visit the different areas of the Viceroyalty in order to make a record of the human and material resources that he had. Once the number of possible tributaries was obtained, he created the reductions, indigenous peoples made up of about five hundred families. This helped him to calculate the taxes they had to pay.

Likewise, he promoted the mita to better distribute the work of the indigenous people. Thus, he sent labor to the Potosí mines, a very rich silver deposit. He did the same with the Huancavelica mines, from which mercury was extracted, a material necessary to treat silver.

Campaign against the Mapuches

With the Viceroyalty already consolidated, it was the Mapuche Indians who became their greatest challenge. For a long time, he had to spend large amounts of money sending troops to Arauco, where the Mapuches did not accept Spanish rule. In 1662 alone, the viceregal government sent 950 soldiers and spent 300,000 pesos in that war.

Apart from that, it also suffered from the attacks of corsairs and pirates. To try to prevent it, the fortification of its most important port took place: that of Callao.

Bourbon reforms

In Spain there was a change in the ruling dynasty that affected its American colonies. Thus, the Bourbon House undertook a series of reforms in the 18th century aimed at limiting the power of the local authorities of the Viceroyalty and reinforcing the control exercised from the metropolis.

Among the most important changes is the introduction of the municipal administration system, eliminating the magistrates and the mayor mayors. In addition, in an attempt to maximize economic benefits, the Crown strengthened the structure of the public finances.

Reduction of the Viceroyalty

Related to the reforms promulgated by the Bourbons, the Viceroyalty of Peru saw its territories reduced. Two large regions of the same were separated by royal order, appearing two new Viceroyalties: that of New Granada, in 1717, and that of Río de la Plata, created in 1776.

This circumstance made the Viceroyalty of Peru lose importance as the economic center of the Spanish Empire.

Loss of commercial importance

Several decisions made by the Crown caused the Viceroyalty to lose commercial weight. The first reduced the commercial traffic of the Callao port by allowing other South American ports to establish direct trade routes with the peninsula.

In addition, after the separation of the Río de la Plata, which had the important ports of Buenos Aires and Montevideo, Callao was destined only for secondary routes through the Pacific.

All this caused Lima to lose its status as the main city of the Spanish colonies in America. Finally, the economy of the Viceroyalty suffered a great loss when Potosí and, therefore, its silver mines, became dependent on the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776.

Emancipation

The 19th century marked the end of the Spanish presence in America. The revolutionary movements spread throughout all the colonies, including the Viceroyalty of Peru, despite the fact that Viceroy José de Abascal y Sousa tried to turn the territory into the center of resistance against the independentistas.

The authorities managed, for example, to contain the advance of the Argentine revolution, reconquer Chile and put down the uprisings in Quito and Cuzco.

However, Guayaquil proclaimed its independence in 1820, in part because of Simón Bolívar's help from Gran Colombia.

End of the Viceroyalty

The independence struggle increased in the second decade of the 19th century. The Army of the Andes defeated the royalists and Chile declared its independence in 1818. This allowed the Chileans to ally themselves with the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and organize a military expedition under the command of José de San Martín.

The rebel troops took the port of Pisco, south of Lima, on September 8, 1820. This was the turning point from which many provinces of the Viceroyalty began to declare their independence from Spain. Finally, San Martín entered Lima in 1821 and proclaimed the independence of Peru on July 28 of that year.

The Spanish resistance moved the capital of the Viceroyalty to Cuzco and tried to maintain its authority in the non-independent territories. The battle of Ayacucho, in 1824, ended with the victory of Sucre against the royalists, which meant the end of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

After this, on April 7, Upper Peru became independent and was renamed the Republic of Bolivia. The last pockets of Spanish military resistance, in Callao and Chiloé, were defeated in January 1826.

Political organization

The Viceroyalty of Peru, like the rest of those constituted in America, was headed by the Viceroy, direct representative of the Spanish monarch on the ground. In addition, other local authority figures were created.

During the first years of existence of the Viceroyalty, the institutions created were quite ineffective. It was not until the appointment of Francisco de Toledo, fifth Viceroy, when the political-administrative organization began to function.

The king of Spain

The Spanish monarch was the highest authority in all the territories of the Empire. Being an absolutist system, the king was the depositary of all the powers of the State.

The Council of the Indies

This body was created in 1524 by King Carlos I, after the conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortés. The official name was the Royal and Supreme of the Indies and its functions were to administer the colonies of the Spanish crown in America.

Thus, the Council was the highest judicial institution in the colonies and was in charge of appointing the authorities of the viceroyalty, although it was the king who had the last word.

The Viceroy

The figure of the Viceroy was the representation of the King of Spain in the Viceroyalty. In the colonial territories he was the highest authority, in charge of imparting justice, administering economic affairs and promoting the evangelization of the indigenous people. His election was carried out, almost always, at the proposal of the Council of the Indies.

In Peru, the viceroys resided in the capital, Lima. During the long existence of the Viceroyalty, there were 40 men who held the position.

Audiences

The Audiencia was the highest court of justice of the Viceroyalty for those cases that dealt with governmental matters. It was presided over by the Viceroy, who was accompanied by the oidores.

There were two kinds of Audiences, depending on their category. The most important were the Viceregal Audiences, such as the one established in Lima. The rest, who depended on the first, were called Subordinate Audiences. In the Viceroyalty of Peru, eight Royal Audiences were created.

The Corregimientos

The Viceroyalty of Peru was administratively divided into areas called townships. There were two types of them, since the Spanish townships were joined by those of the Indians in 1569. The latter were subordinate to the former.

The Council of the Indies was in charge of appointing a high official to govern the corregimientos. The functions of this type of governing body were to administer their territories, maintaining order. Likewise, they had to collect taxes from their inhabitants and enforce the laws.

The Intendances

In the framework of the Bourbon reforms, Carlos III decided to suppress the corregimientos in 1784. One of the causes for doing so was the insurrection led by Túpac Amaru II. In their place, the monarch established the Intendencies.

At first, the municipalities in the Viceroyalty of Peru were seven: Trujillo, Lima, Arequipa, Cusco, Huamanga, Huancavelica and Tarma. Some years later, the mayor of Puno joined the Viceroyalty.

The Cabildos

This local institution was similar to today's town halls. They were in charge of the government of the localities and were headed by two mayors who were elected each year.

Indigenous authorities: the Curaca and the Varayoc

One of the tactics used by the Spanish to facilitate their domination over the conquered territory was to use the services of the ancient Inca leaders at the local level.

Among the institutions they decided to maintain was the curacazgo, the custom of electing a chief for each ayllu or community. That chief was called curaca, although the Spanish called him cacique. During the Viceroyalty, the curacas were subordinate to the corrected Spanish.

Another Inca figure that remained was that of the varayoc. This was a civil authority that was in charge of the administrative government of the town, a function similar to that of mayors.

Social organization

One of the peculiarities of the Viceroyalty of Peru was the establishment of two Republics: that of the Spanish and that of the Indians. Both were established by the New Laws of 1542, promulgated by Carlos I.

The society of the time, as it happened in the rest of the American colonies, was totally estamental. In practice, there was a ruling class formed by Spanish whites and, to a lesser extent, by whites born already in the colony (criollos) and a lower class formed by the rest.

The Republic of the Spanish

Within the Republic of the Spanish there were three well-defined social classes. At the top were the Spanish arrived from the peninsula. They were the ones who held the main positions within the Viceroyalty.

After the Spanish came the Creoles, who had been born in the Viceroyalty. Over time, their economic condition began to improve and they were the protagonists of the wars of independence.

Finally, there were those who, although they were Spanish or Creole, did not have great fortunes. It was a middle class, dedicated to jobs such as law, medicine or commerce, not forgetting the military and lower-ranking officials.

Republic of the indians

In the Republic of the Indians there was also an upper class, made up of the curacas. Many of them were descendants of the old indigenous ruling class and were accountable to the Spanish authorities.

Some of their privileges were the exemption from paying taxes, the possession of land and the possibility of receiving a special education in the cacique colleges.

Below this indigenous nobility were the Hatunrunas, the Indian people. Although the majority, it was the most exploited class within the Viceroyalty. The laws that protected them never became effective on the ground.

The mestizos

Over the centuries, Spanish and indigenous people mixed, creating various castes. These were not considered neither Spanish nor indigenous, so legally they did not exist.

Although there were many more. the most common castes or mixtures in the Viceroyalty were the following:

- El Mestizo, a cross between whites and Indians.

- El Zambo, a cross between Indians and blacks.

- El Mulato, a cross between blacks and whites.

African slaves

The most disadvantaged social and racial class of the Viceroyalty was formed by the blacks brought from Africa, as slaves. Their destiny was to work in agriculture and in the mines to replace the dwindling indigenous workforce, decimated by epidemics and abuse.

African slaves were considered merchandise and could be bought and sold. They only got to mix with the natives.

Economy

The base of the economy in the Viceroyalty of Peru were mining, agriculture, livestock and trade.

Mining

During the sixteenth centuries and much of the seventeenth, mining became the most important economic activity in the Viceroyalty. Already in the 18th century, with the territorial changes, the wealth obtained began to decline.

Historians distinguish two different periods related to mining. The first, dated until the Viceroyalty was effectively established, was characterized by intensive extraction and by the appropriation and distribution of wealth.

The second period developed from the Ordinances of 1542, when the Viceroyalty was created. This meant organizing the exploitation of the deposits in a slightly more rational and beneficial way for the Crown.

The most productive mines, such as those of Potosí, Pasco, or Oruro, were directly owned by the Crown. The smaller ones, on the other hand, were exploited by individuals in exchange for a tax equivalent to one fifth of those obtained.

Agriculture and livestock

Pre-Hispanic civilizations had already developed agricultural and livestock activities before the conquest. The Spanish not only took over the lands, but also introduced new techniques and tools unknown until then.

Among the contributions of the Spaniards, the cultivation of wheat, vine or garlic stands out. Likewise, they introduced animals such as cows, pigs or chickens, as well as the use of horses and donkeys for agricultural tasks.

Finally, one of the great social changes affected the consumption of corn and coca. Before the conquest, they were food destined for the elites and, after the arrival of the Spanish, they became widely consumed.

The obrajes

Jauja was the seat of the first textile manufacturing workshop, founded in 1545. The name these workshops received was that of obrajes.

The indigenous peoples had a great tradition in the manufacture of these products, but the obrajes were never able to overcome their refinement. Despite this, the quality was sufficient to satisfy the urban and mining markets.

The owners of the first obrajes were the encomenderos, a figure that monopolized power and wealth in the different regions.

Commerce

Trade in the Viceroyalty of Peru was marked by its monopoly character. According to the laws, only the Spanish territories could trade with the Viceroyalty.

To take advantage of this circumstance economically, the Crown created in Seville, in 1503, the so-called Casa de Contratación de Indias. This institution was in charge of ensuring compliance with the monopoly, in addition to controlling everything related to trade.

On the other hand, in each viceroyalty a Consulate Court was formed, whose function was to control the commercial movement.

Within the Viceroyalty of Peru, commercial activity made the port of Callao the most important of the colonies until the end of the monopoly system.

In 1713, by virtue of the Treaty of Utrech, Spain had to grant England the right to send a ship of merchandise annually to Atlantic ports. Years later, King Carlos III decreed free trade. With this, new ports appeared that superseded Callao, such as Buenos Aire or Valparaiso.

Public Treasury in the Viceroyalty

An effective public finance was essential for the American colonies to be profitable to the Spanish Crown. Its function was the collection of taxes and that they reached the coffers of the metropolis.

The name of the institution created to carry out these functions was Hacienda Real or Real Hacienda. It had three types of patrimony: that of the king, that of the Crown and the prosecutor.

Given the breadth of the Viceroyalty of Peru, it was necessary to create boxes distributed throughout its extension. After discounting the expenses for each area, the surplus was sent to the central headquarters in Lima. This, after paying the expenses of the Viceroyalty, sent the money to Spain.

References

1. History of Peru. Creation of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Obtained from historiaperuana.pe
2. The popular. Viceroyalty of Peru: its political organization. Obtained from elpopular.pe
3. EcuRed. Viceroyalty of Peru. Obtained from ecured.cu
4. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Viceroyalty of Peru. Retrieved from britannica.com
5. Discover Peru. Viceroyalty of Peru. Obtained from discover-peru.org
6. Kilroy-Ewbank, Lauren. Introduction to the Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas. Retrieved from smarthistory.org
7. Fisher, John R. Government and Society in Colonial Peru: The Intendant System 1784-1814. Recovered from books.google.es