SOCIOLOGY: WHAT IT STUDIES, BRANCHES, FOUNDERS, THEORIES - SCIENCE - 2025

The Sociology is a social science that studies human social relations and institutions. Sociologists study the structure of groups, organizations, societies and how people interact in these contexts; They therefore investigate from social interactions between people to relations between States or companies.

The term sociology arose in 1824 thanks to Auguste Comte, one of the fathers of this discipline whose main objective is to study human beings and the societies that they build.

Auguste Comte was one of the founding fathers of sociology. Source: See page for author

Before the term was coined, other thinkers in history had already made various proposals that pointed to the need for the creation of a science specifically focused on societies. Such is the case of Henri Saint-Simon, who in 1807 had already expressed his concern about it.

Currently sociology is a science that covers a wide space in the study of man and has a large number of branches that focus their efforts on dealing with very specific areas of societies, such as environmental sociology, educational sociology and political sociology. among many others.

What does sociology study?

Because the human being is a social animal, the field of study of sociology is wide; therefore, you can analyze various topics in depth.

Some of them are crime, religion, family, the State, social classes, cultural standards, beliefs common to a group of individuals, and the radical changes that take place in all societies.

On a personal level, sociology investigates the social causes of phenomena such as romantic love, racial and gender identity, family conflicts, divergent behavior, old age, and religious faith.

At the societal level, sociology examines and explains issues related to crime, law, poverty, wealth, prejudice, discrimination, education, business, urban communities, and social movements.

From a global perspective, this branch of the social sciences is responsible for studying phenomena related to population growth, migration, wars, peace, and economic development.

Founders

Throughout history there has been a group of very important characters for sociology, who have developed it since its inception and have turned it into the influential science that it is today.

Among the main founders of sociology are Auguste Comte, Alexis de Tocqueville, Émile Durkheim, Karl Marx and Max Weber. Below we will describe the most relevant contributions of these characters:

Auguste Comte

This French thinker is credited with having coined the term "sociology" in 1824. He was a staunch critic of religion and proposed a positivist vision through which human knowledge passes through three stages, different from each other but necessary for achieve the approach to the truth.

In the first place there is a fictitious stage, also called theological, which corresponds to the first approach to knowledge. Second is the abstract stage, linked to the metaphysical and which should only be a transition to the third and final stage: the positive or scientific.

Alexis de Tocqueville

He was a French historian and politician who had a special participation in the political life of France during the 19th century. He was one of the founders of classical sociology.

His main work was Democracy in America, which was the result of an analysis of the United States political system.

Among the main ideas of Tocqueville stands out the notion of a philosophy of history. According to this concept, every historical process has a specific meaning.

Tocqueville was characterized by using very precise and specific information to create models through which reality could be explained. However, such data was exaggerated, so the models generated were not really a sample of global reality, but rather an extreme scenario.

Emile Durkheim

Durkheim is part of the positivist tradition of sociology. One of the main contributions of this French philosopher and sociologist is to have considered sociology as an independent discipline of a scientific nature. In addition, Durkheim was responsible for proposing the application of the scientific method to give a solid foundation to sociology.

The theory proposed by Durkheim considers the existence of a normative model that determines the order of a society. It also determined that the social context is absolutely alien to the will of the people, and that the social corresponds to a compendium of values ​​shared by the individuals that make up a society.

Karl Marx

He was a journalist, sociologist, and economist born in Prussia who characterized his life by linking the theory he proposed with specific actions in the journalistic and political spheres. He is considered one of the most influential thinkers in the world.

In the context of sociology, Marx proposed Marxism. According to this current, social dynamics is based on the struggle between the various classes of a society. For Marx, capitalism corresponds to a dictatorship exercised by the most economically privileged, who possess the productive means of a society.

Max weber

Max Weber, 1864 - 1920

He was a German philosopher also considered the father of sociology. According to Weber, it is impossible for sociology to be an exact science because the data on which it is based are subjective, since they correspond to human beings.

Weber proposed the so-called methodological individualism, according to which only individuals can be agents of social change. One of the main branches of study proposed by Weber has to do with linking the cultural situation of society with its economic productivity.

Other precursors

Herbert Spencer

See page for author, via Wikimedia Commons

The distinctive element of Spencer's theory was the association of evolutionary theory with concepts of sociology. This English-born philosopher and sociologist determined that the theory of evolution and its laws apply to both the solar system and societies.

For Spencer, the application of these laws is subject to processes related to differentiation and integration. One of the main notions of this thinker is that those who promote progress are men and women who can adapt to the changes generated by a society in continuous change.

Henri de Saint-Simon

He was a key French politician and historian in the rise of socialism as a doctrine. It had special influence in the political sphere during the 19th century; his work was written between 1802 and 1825 and is said to have inspired Marx, Comte, and Durkheim.

Saint-Simon is considered a visionary in the field of sociology, since in 1807 he predicted the birth of what he called the scientific revolution, which was to be generated as a result of the change in the methods of thought of the time.

Saint-Simon's early ideas include the need for a science that is completely dedicated to human beings and societies, which today is precisely sociology.

Alfred Schütz

This Austrian philosopher was the forerunner of the emergence of the branch of phenomenology within the social sciences. Schütz indicated that the human beings that make up a society share the same reality, which includes all those elements with which they are in contact.

Schütz also determined the existence of what he called the biographical situation, which comprises both the cultural and social context and the physical in which an individual lives and interacts.

In this vein, Schütz points out that among the elements that directly affect this biographical situation, those that the individual can control and those that escape his control stand out.

Vilfredo Pareto

One of the most relevant elements of the ideas of this Italian sociologist, economist and philosopher is that he recognized that the sensitive realm of individuals has a strong influence on the rational realm, but at the same time stressed that the social sciences must necessarily be based on rationality.

In this sense, Pareto dedicated himself to applying the laws of natural sciences in the study of social circumstances that had a certain uniformity. From these observations he sought to produce a system of laws with a probabilistic basement.

Branches

There are many branches of sociology, this is so because it is a discipline that covers a lot of content since its main object of study is human beings and the societies in which they develop.

Below we will describe the most relevant characteristics of some of the main branches of sociology:

Historical sociology

This branch of sociology specializes in the analysis of the development of societies, focusing specifically on their historical processes.

One of the premises of this discipline is related to the fact that many of the social structures that define a given society have not been generated spontaneously, but are the result of far-reaching historical processes experienced by said society.

Among the main topics covered by historical sociology, the analysis of the relationships between social classes, economic systems and States stands out.

Economic sociology

Economic sociology starts from the premise that the economy is a purely social fact. In other words, according to this sociological branch, all economic procedures are social facts and must be studied as such.

Through this discipline it is sought to understand social constructions considering economic dynamics, specifically observing the behavior of individuals within the framework of the economy.

Educational sociology

Through educational sociology it is sought to understand the functioning of educational systems within the framework of the social fabric.

Its mission is not only one of analysis but also of active participation, because through this discipline it is intended to intervene in a concrete way in the structure of educational processes. The idea is to consider the social reality of both students and teachers and educational institutions.

Environmental sociology

This branch of sociology focuses on the study of the relationships that exist between different societies and the natural environments that are part of their contexts.

The main premise of this discipline is to understand which are the social elements that directly influence the implementation of environmental policies and how the natural resources of societies are managed.

Likewise, he also concentrates his studies on determining how environmental problems are perceived in the social sphere, as well as observing and analyzing the type of responses that are offered to said problems.

Political sociology

Political sociology focuses its efforts on understanding power taking into account the social context.

The main institutions of power that are the object of study in this discipline are those of public order; the most relevant is the government.

Through political sociology, power structures, their legitimacy and the interaction between these systems with societies are studied.

Sociology of religion

The sociology of religion studies the church as a social institution, inquiring about its origin, development and forms. She is also interested in the changes, structure and function of religion.

Sociology of Education

The sociology of education studies the objectives of the school as a social institution, its curricular and extracurricular activities, and the way it relates to the community and other institutions.

Political sociology

Political sociology studies the social implications of various types of political movements and ideologies. She is interested in knowing their origin, history, development and functions within the government and the State.

Sociology of law

The sociology of law studies the mechanisms that exercise formal social control over the members of a group, with the aim of achieving uniformity of behavior by imparting certain social rules and regulations.

Featured Theories in Sociology

Functionalism

This theory emerged in the 20th century and was influenced by the notions of Durkheim and Spencer. The forerunners of this trend were the anthropologists Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown and Bronislaw Malinowski.

According to Malinowski, people have an interest in modifying and controlling their contexts, in order to respond to their own biological needs. In this sense, it establishes that those social processes that are apparently not motivated by reason, are.

This is so because these reactions are always directly linked to the psychological and social needs of individuals; hence, they are rational.

Marxism

It is a doctrine within the scope of communism that was proposed by Karl Marx. As we mentioned earlier, the main foundation of this theory has to do with a constant class struggle; According to Marxism, this dynamic has determined the development of societies.

The journalist and philosopher Friedrich Engels co-authored this trend together with Marx. These authors determined that there are basically two sides in a society: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The relationships between these extremes is what determines how well a society develops.

Within this theory there are two fundamental elements. The first is historical materialism, the most scientific area of ​​the current that determines that the material foundation that a society has is essential to promote its development.

The second is dialectical materialism, a philosophical approach that makes clear the fact that the historical and social dynamics are purely empirical. In stating this, Marx detaches his theory from the philosophy that he considers speculative.

Theory of bureaucratic domination

This theory was proposed by Max Weber. Through this, he indicates that the existence of some organizational structure through which the power structures can dominate the most vulnerable classes is essential.

That is, in addition to legitimation, the powerful need to build some kind of administrative method to fully exercise power.

In relation to the forms of legitimation, Weber defines three main ones. The first is traditional domination, which is linked to a patriarchal dynamic or based on the principle of inheritance.

The second is charismatic domination, which is sustained on the basis of the characteristics of the person in power. These qualities are pleasing to those outside the power structure, and therefore they submit to whoever wields them.

Finally, legal domination stands out, which is above individuals and corresponds to the laws. The application of these legislative bodies must be uniform to all members of a society and is independent of who is in the position of power.

Themes of interest

Object of study of sociology.

References

1. Muñoz, V. “What is Marxism? Characteristics and philosophy ”in Red Historia. Retrieved on October 23, 2019 from Red Historia: redhistoria.com
2. Calderón, J. "Functionalism" at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Retrieved on October 23, 2019 from the National Autonomous University of Mexico: unam.mx
3. "Enviromental sociology" in Wikipedia. Retrieved on October 23, 2019 from Wikipedia: wikipedia.org
4. "Sociology of education" in Wikipedia. Retrieved on October 23, 2019 from Wikipedia: wikipedia.org
5. "The sociology of Vilfredo Pareto" in Ssociologists. Retrieved on October 23, 2019 from Ssociologists: sscoiologos.com
6. "Vilfredo Pareto" in Wikipedia. Retrieved on October 23, 2019 from Wikipedia: wikipedia.org