LINUS PAULING: BIOGRAPHY, CONTRIBUTIONS, AWARDS AND QUOTES - SCIENCE - 2025

Linus Pauling (1901-1994) was a renowned scientist and chemist of American nationality who also stood out as a political activist. For some authors, Pauling is considered the best scientist of the last century, as he was among the first quantum chemists in history.

His great contributions to the world of science led him to win the Nobel Prize in chemistry during 1954; Likewise, his humanistic precepts allowed him to win the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962. This made Pauling one of the few in the world to acquire this award on two occasions.

Pauling is one of the few people who has won the Nobel Prize twice. Source: Smithsonian Institution from United States

One of his great contributions was to define the structure of proteins and crystals, also developing a work in which he described chemical bonds. He is considered a scientist quite adapted to various areas, since he contributed with quantum chemistry, metallurgy, psychology, anesthesiology and radioactive decay.

His most important text was The Nature of Chemical Bonding, which was published in 1939. In this work Pauling established the notion of hybridization corresponding to atomic orbitals.

Linus's work related to those elements that replace blood plasma, as well as his research on the anemia present in sickle cells, greatly transformed the biological discipline in the 20th century.

Likewise, Pauling approached the discovery of the "double helix" present in DNA; however, it was Francis Crick and James Dewey Watson who made the final discovery in 1953.

As for his political activism, it began with World War II, when Linus decided to contribute from the creation of an oxygen detector for underwater ships. He also manufactured different explosives and fuels; However, when they brought him the proposal for the manufacture of the first atomic bomb, he refused to participate.

Biography

Early years

Linus Carl Pauling was born on February 28, 1901 in the city of Portland, located in the state of Oregon. His parents were Herman Henry William Pauling and Lucy Isabelle Darling.

Herman was of German descent and was in the pharmaceutical field. He could not have much commercial success during his life, so the family had to constantly move around the state.

In 1910 the father of the future Nobel Prize winner passed away, so Lucy had to take care of her three children: Linus, Pauline and Frances. Due to this event, the family decided to relocate to the city of Portland, so that the children would have the opportunity to study at a fixed educational institution.

From his childhood, Linus showed an avid interest in reading, so his father had to ask a local newspaper for advice on books, where he worked; in this way he kept the little boy occupied in a constructive way.

It is also worth mentioning that Lloyd Jeffress, a family friend, had a chemical laboratory that sparked Pauling's scientific desire.

During his high school studies, Pauling continued to develop his interests in chemistry. In order to carry out his own investigations, Linus had to borrow materials from the steel company where his grandfather worked.

Despite his reading ability, Pauling got very poor grades in history, so he was unable to earn his high school diploma. After winning the Nobel many years later, the institution finally awarded him his title.

First scientific studies

In 1917 Linus entered the Oregon Agricultural University (OAC), located in the small town of Corvallis. While he was doing these studies, Pauling worked full days, as he had to help his mother with household debts; He even handed out milk and was a projectionist in the local cinema.

In the quest to find a job that would provide him with a constant income of money, the same university proposed to Linus that he teach quantitative analytical chemistry classes, which allowed him to continue his studies simultaneously.

Postgraduate and PhD

One of the works that influenced Pauling's later research was the text by Irving Langmuir and Gilbert Newton in which various postulates concerning the electronic composition of atoms were addressed.

Thanks to this work, Pauling made the decision to explore the relationship between the structure of matter in the atomic domain, taking into account its chemical and physical properties. This resulted in Linus Pauling becoming a pioneer of what is known today as quantum chemistry.

His cousins ​​studies were carried out at the OAC, taking as a starting point an iron crystal and the location it occupied in a certain magnetic field.

In 1922 he obtained a Bachelor of Science degree, specifically in the discipline of process engineering. After this he made a specialization in Pasadena, at the California Institute of Technology.

Subsequently, Pauling received a doctorate by publishing a series of articles that addressed the crystal structure of different minerals. This doctorate was classified as summa cum laude in 1925.

Beginning of his career as a scientist

Thanks to his academic efforts, the Guggenheim Foundation offered Pauling a scholarship, so he had the opportunity to go to Europe and conduct studies led by leading European scientists of the time, whom Pauling had studied in detail.

During his stay in Europe, he was also able to visualize one of the earliest advances related to the bonds of the hydrogen molecule, whose theory was formulated from the bases of quantum chemistry.

Pauling returned to the United States in 1927, where he worked as an assistant professor at Caltech; He stayed there for several years and managed to publish about fifty writings.

In fact, during this time Linus created the well-known five Pauling rules, which allowed to establish the molecular structure of complex-type crystals. In 1930 he was appointed professor in theoretical chemistry.

Return to Europe and the notion of electronegativity

In 1930 Linus Pauling returned to Europe in order to remain in the Old Continent for the rest of the summer. During this period Pauling realized that he could use electrons to study diffraction, which he had previously done using X-rays.

When he returned to his native country, he decided to build a device that would allow electronic diffraction; This invention was used to learn the molecular structure of a remarkable group of chemicals.

Thanks to this Pauling obtained the Langmuir Prize, which was given by the American Chemical Society. The members of this society admired the fact that Linus was not yet thirty years old and had the ability to have done such significant scientific work.

Political activism

Linus Pauling's political activity began with the participation of the United States in World War II, since the chemist began to contribute to the manufacture of different elements that facilitated the victory of the Americans in battle.

At that time of war tension, Pauling was called by Robert Oppenheimer to head the chemistry department during the atomic bomb construction project. Pauling refused to participate, saying he was in favor of peace.

Due to his contributions to the war, the US government decided to award him the Presidential Medal of Merit in 1948. However, Pauling had been negatively marked by the war events, especially after viewing the bombings of the cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima.

Concern about the use of nuclear weapons

After this Linus decided to change his position to belong to peaceful activism. In 1946, Pauling partnered with the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists in order to warn the public about the consequences of the use of nuclear weapons.

Linus's pacifist stance caused his passport to be confiscated during 1952. However, in 1954 the authorities returned his passport to him in order for him to travel to Stockholm to receive the Nobel Prize.

Along with his partner Barry Commoner, Linus wrote a petition in which he claimed that nuclear weapons, as well as their tests on earth, were harmful to human health and the environment, as they had radioactive consequences.

He also held a debate together with Edward Teller, in which both claimed that radioactivity could cause genetic mutations.

Proposal to the UN

With the help of his wife, Pauling presented to the United Nations a document that had previously been signed by a group of eleven thousand scientists, who requested the eradication of nuclear tests.

Thanks to this, a treaty was signed in which nuclear tests were partially banned (PTBT). This document was signed by a total of 113 countries.

As a consequence of this, Linus Pauling was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, since the author had not only worked incessantly for the suspension of nuclear tests, but also proposed that no conflict of an international nature could be resolved through warfare.

Marital life and death

On June 17, 1923 Pauling married Ava Helen Miller and as a result of this union, three children were born: two boys and one girl. Pauling and Miller met at OAC, since Linus had taught Ava during her home economics chemistry course.

During his stay at Caltech Pauling maintained a close relationship with Robert Oppenheimer, they even wanted to do research on chemical bonds together; however, Pauling realized that Oppenheimer was approaching his wife inappropriately.

Oppenheimer once invited Ava Helen on a trip to Mexico; however, she declined the invitation and immediately notified her husband. As a result, Pauling ended his relationship with the renowned scientist.

Oppenheimer later put aside his differences with Pauling to suggest the position of chief chemistry during the Manhattan Project, but Linus rejected the proposal because he did not agree with the use of nuclear weapons.

Linus Pauling passed away on August 19, 1994 at the age of 94 in the state of California. The legacy of this chemist, along with his postulates and his humanistic ideas, remains in force within the world of science despite his physical disappearance.

Contributions and discoveries

The chemical bond and its nature

Pauling's investigations into the nature of chemical bonds began in 1930, which contributed to the publication of one of his most important texts entitled The Nature of Chemical Bonding, which was made public in 1939.

According to experts, this work has been cited by great scientists about 16,000 times, which shows the potential and importance of this research. With this work Pauling won the Nobel Prize in 1954, as he brought something completely new to the world of chemistry.

Hybridization concept

One of the fundamental contributions of Linus Pauling consisted in the creation of the concept of hybridization with reference to atomic orbitals.

The scientist realized that it was better to construct functions such as the mixing of the orbitals to describe the bonding of the molecules. The Pauling method allows to establish unsaturated compounds, such as ethylene.

In other words, hybridization consists of the interaction that occurs between atomic orbitals within the same atom, which allows the formation of new hybrid orbitals. Hybrid atomic orbitals overlap at bonds and account for molecular geometry.

Pauling was also dedicated to understanding how ionic bonds are related, in which electrons are transferred from one atom to another; likewise, he studied covalent bonds, in which the two atoms provide electrons.

Another topic that Pauling developed with reference to bonds consisted in deciphering the structure of aromatic compounds, taking benzene as a starting point, which is the simplest compound among them.

The nucleus of the atom and its structure

In 1925 Pauling decided to focus on the problem related to the atomic nucleus. This project took him thirteen years, as it was at that moment that he was able to publish his packaged sphere figure. This research was brought to the public by top scientific journals such as Science.

Despite the scientific recognition of Pauling's work, few modern books in this branch feature this packed sphere model. The perspective of this specimen is unique: it specifies the way in which the chains of nuclei can develop different structures taking into account quantum mechanics.

The renowned scientist Norman Cook established that Pauling's model is very pertinent in terms of the construction of nuclei and that its logic is indisputable; however, this idea of ​​Linus has not been deepened.

Medicine studies

Interest in medicine arose when Pauling discovered that he had Bright's disease - incurable at the time - which caused life-threatening kidney problems.

Linus managed to control the disease through a diet very poor in consumption of amino acids and salt, which was novel for the time.

At that moment Pauling was tempted to study the functioning of vitamins and mineral salts in the body, since he had to consume them frequently. For this reason, he decided to dedicate himself to the study of enzymes in brain functions, as well as the healing properties of vitamin C.

Consumption of vitamin C

In 1969 Pauling got involved in a controversy related to the use of vitamin C in large quantities.

For the chemist, the consumption of this vitamin in considered doses can keep the consumer away from certain diseases, as this element protects the immune system from colds and other general ailments.

The Frederik State Study

A renowned nutritionist named Frederik State decided to refute Linus's claims through a study he conducted at the University of Minnesota, where one group of students consumed vitamin C for two years and the other group took placebo pills.

The experts pointed out that 31% of the students showed that they got sick for less time, which turns out to be a very positive detail that was ignored by Dr. Stake. Additionally, the doses delivered by Stake were lower compared to Pauling's recommended dose for daily intake.

To counter Dr. Stake's study, Linus Pauling and his colleague Evan Cameron decided to publish an investigation carried out at the Vale of Leven hospital in which the survival of 100 terminally ill cancer patients was demonstrated by the administration of vitamin C.

Another group of patients was not given this vitamin. Finally, it was shown that the 100 patients who were added vitamin C managed to survive 300 days longer than the others.

However, certain anomalies have been noted in these investigations by Pauling, so scientists still cannot affirm the miraculously curative properties of vitamin C. Currently its consumption is recommended to strengthen the immune system, but it is not considered that can cure cancer.

Awards

Due to his tireless scientific and humanistic work, Pauling received a large number of awards during the course of his life. Among them the following stand out:

Langmuir Award

Awarded by the American Chemical Society in 1931. It was his first award, when he was not yet thirty years old.

Gibbs Medal

Awarded by the American Chemical Society, specifically by the Chicago branch, in 1946.

Davy Medal

This award was awarded by the Royal Society in 1947, as a thank you for your contributions to the theory of valence and its effective application.

Lewis Medal

This recognition was delivered by the American Chemical Society, but this time from the section located in California.

Pasteur Medal

This award was a recognition granted by the Biochemical Society of the French country.

Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Awarded in 1954 for his investigative performance in the area of ​​chemical bonds.

Avogadro Medal

Submitted by the Italian Academy of Sciences in 1956.

Gandhi Peace Prize

Delivered in 1962 for his political activism aimed at stopping nuclear tests.

Nobel Peace Prize

This award was presented in recognition of his political activism in 1962.

Lenin Peace Prize

Another award for his pacifist work given in 1969.

National Medal of Sciences

One of the most important distinctions awarded in 1974.

Lomonosov Medal

This recognition was received in 1977 and awarded by the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Priestley Medal

It was awarded in 1984 by the American Chemical Society.

Quotes

Some of Pauling's most important phrases, within the scientific and political context, are the following:

- “If you want to have good ideas, you have to have many ideas. Most of them will be wrong, and you just have to learn which ones to discard. "

- "I have always wanted to know as much as possible about the world."

- "The only sensible policy for the world is to eliminate war."

- “There is nothing that should not be investigated by scientists. Although there will always remain some unanswered questions. In general, those are the questions that have not yet been asked. "

- “When an older and distinguished person speaks to you, listen carefully and respectfully - but don't believe it. Never put your trust in anything other than your own intellect. "

- “I have something that I call my golden rule. It goes something like this: "Treat others 25% better than you expect them to treat you"… The added 25% is to consider the error. "

References

1. A (sf) Gemini health papers: Linus Pauling. Retrieved on February 20, 2019 from Herbo geminis: herbogeminis.com
2. Serna, A. (2013) Linus Pauling: Chemical bond. Retrieved on February 20, 2019 from Scribd: es.scribd.com
3. Serrano, F. (2015) Science, reality and method in the work of Linus Pauling. Retrieved on February 20, 2019 from ResearchGate: researchgate.net
4. Serrano, J. (2010) Linus Pauling versus Athena: The Philosophical Foundations of Pauling's Science. Retrieved on February 20, 2019 from Dialnet: Dialnet.com
5. Vos, S. (2007) Linus Pauling: American hero. Retrieved on February 20, 2019 from ChemMatters: acs.org
6. Weise, M. (2018) Linus Pauling, the scientist who transformed chemistry into a world of three-dimensional structures. Retrieved on February 20, 2019 from Loff. It Society Ephemeris: loff.it