JULIUS CAESAR - ARTE - 2025

Julius Caesar (100 BC - 44 BC) was a Roman military man, statesman, politician, and historian. He led the war that was fought in the Gallic territory and the conquest of a large portion of that area. During the last stage of the Roman republican period, after the end of the civil war, Caesar held power and became a dictator for life.

He descended from a patrician family, who were the ruling class as they came from the first curiae established in the city. He was also linked to Gaius Mario, one of the most prominent politicians in Rome during the youth of Julius Caesar.

Julio César, photographer: Anderson / Alfred von Domaszewski via Wikimedia Commons

Lucio Cornelio Cina named Julio César flamen dialis in 85 BC. C., that was the name that was given to the priest consecrated to Jupiter. Furthermore, he married Cina's daughter named Cornelia.

Sila, who was a staunch enemy of Gaius Mario and Lucio Cina, came to power. That caused Julius Caesar to have to flee in order to save his life. He managed to go into exile in Asia, where he served as a legacy, a military rank similar to that of modern general officers.

In 78 a. C., he returned to Rome and devoted himself to litigation, which at the time was the first step in politics. Especially, he dedicated himself to defending processes against officials accused of corruption and his correct use of words guaranteed him fame in the society of the time.

Julio César was electro quaestor and sent to Hispania Ulterior in 69 BC. C., when he was 30 years old. The functions of the quaestors were similar to those of modern judges and they worked with matters such as murder or treason. That same year he was widowed and married Pompeii, Sila's granddaughter.

In 65 a. C., returned to the capital of the Republic and was selected as a curul mayor, from there he supervised daily activities in the city of different kinds and was dependent on the corresponding urban praetor.

Julius Caesar was invested as Pontifex Maximus in 63 BC. A year later he managed to be chosen as urban praetor and, later, propraetor of a territory that was already familiar to him: Hispania Ulterior. There he undertook military actions that guaranteed him sufficient economic profit to pay off debts.

Julius Caesar belonged to the popular political faction, who supported him for the elections to the Consulate in 59 BC. C., in which the victory of Caesar was undoubted. He was accompanied to office by Marco Calpurnio Bibulus, chosen by Cato and the optimates.

Pompey had had great successes in Asia, but he intended to favor his army with agrarian policies that allowed men a good future away from arms. Caesar's willingness to collaborate with him was one of the aspects that united them, together with Marco Licinius Crassus, for what became known as the first triumvirate.

In 58 a. C., Julius Caesar was sent as proconsul to Transalpine and Illyrian Gaul, and then to Cisalpine Gaul for 5 years. At that time the warlike actions against the Helvetii began and thus began the Gallic War.

Julius Caesar, photo by Georges Jansoone (JoJan) via Wikimedia Commons

After almost a decade of campaigns, Julius Caesar managed to conquer what is now known as Holland, France and Switzerland, as well as parts of Germany and Belgium. It also entered Breton lands in two brief moments.

After the daughter of Caesar and Marco Licinius Crassus passed away, the triumvirate was dissolved around 53 BC. C.

The Roman Republic was once again outraged by a civil war. Pompey and Julius Caesar measured forces between the years 49 a. C. and 45 a. The battles were fought throughout the territory dominated by the Empire, including Asia and Africa.

In 46 a. C., Julio César returned to Rome and that was the third time in which he obtained the title of dictator. The military who fought on the side of Caesar received great economic rewards, in addition to lands in the new conquered territories.

He was stabbed to death by senators who thought of him as the threat to the Roman Republic. Among the conspirators was a young man who had been very close to Julius Caesar: Marco Junius Brutus. Suetonius stated that Caesar's last words were "You too, my son?"

Biography

Early years

Gaius Julius Caesar was born in Rome during the year 100 BC. C. There is no accurate information to ensure the day with certainty, but some sources take July 12 or 13. However, some think that if he was correct, then he reached the positions he held earlier than was stipulated in Roman law.

He had the same name as his father, who was a senator. There is controversy about a possible position held by Julius Caesar's father in Asia, but if it happened, it is contradicted by the date of his death.

Julius Caesar's mother was Aurelia Cotta, of the Aurelios and Rutilios, both families part of the Roman plebeian class, but very influential in the politics of the city. The couple had two more daughters: Julia the Elder and Julia the Younger.

In 85 a. C., Caesar had to take a leading role within his family, since his father died.

As if fate had decided the future of the young man, his training was given by a Gaul: Marco Antonio Gnipho, who had the task of teaching him rhetoric and grammar.

Ancestors

It was part of the Gens Julia, one of the Albanian patrician families that settled in Rome after the destruction of Alba Longa in the mid-7th century BC. It is assumed that the Julios were descendants of Ascanio, also known as Iulus or Julus, who according to tradition was the son of Aeneas with the goddess Venus.

The names in the Roman tradition were composed of the praenomen, similar to the given name of today, then the nomen that corresponded to the family gens, which is similar to modern surnames.

In addition, in some cases, they could display a cognomen, which was a kind of individual nickname, but which over time became hereditary. One of the explanations about the nickname "Caesar" (Caesar), was that an ancestor of the family had been born by caesarean section.

But there were also other explanations such as that some ancestor had killed an elephant. The latter seemed to be the one that Julius Caesar liked the most, since images of elephants appeared on some coins minted during his rule.

Entry into politics

When the young man was 17 years old, in 84 BC. C., Cina selected Julius Caesar to perform as flamen dialis, that is, a priest of the god Jupiter. Another relevant event that happened that year for Caesar was his union with Cornelia, daughter of Cina.

These events were driven by politics, especially after the start of the civil war in the Roman Republic. Julius Caesar's uncle, Gaius Mario, was involved in the fight and his ally was Lucio Cornelio Cina. Their rival was Lucio Cornelio Sila.

After Sulla rose victorious, he tried to pressure Julius Caesar to divorce Cornelia, as a strategy to undo the unions that Cina had formed during his tenure.

Julius Caesar, image by Andrew Bossi via Wikimedia Commons

Then the new ruler ordered that Julius Caesar be stripped of his property and his position. The boy did not give in and preferred to hide until, under the influence of his mother, the death threat against Caesar was raised.

With his commitment to the priesthood removed, he undertook a new goal: a military career. Then Julius Caesar thought that getting away from Rome for a time would be the wisest thing to do and he joined the army.

He was under the orders of Marco Minucius Thermo in Asia and in Cilicia he was one of the men of Publio Servilio Vatia Isaurico. Julius Caesar excelled in the positions to which he was assigned and even won a civic crown.

Return to rome

In 78 a. C., Julio César knew of the death of Sila, that led him to return to the capital of the Republic. He had been in a bad economic situation, but decided to settle in Subura, a middle-class Roman neighborhood, and dedicated himself to the exercise of law.

He was in charge of accusing Roman officials who were related to corruption cases, acting as a kind of prosecutor. Julius Caesar stood out in the Roman Forum for his brilliant oratory, which led to his name being recognized in political circles.

In 74 a. C., Caesar, along with a private army, faced Mitrídates VI Eupator de Ponto. Also the following year he was selected pontifex, in this way he became part of the College of Pontiffs of Rome, which guaranteed him a high status in society.

At that time, Julio César traveled to Rhodes, there he proposed to study oratory with Professor Apolonio Molón. On that trip he was taken prisoner by some pirates who demanded a ransom for him. Even though he was kidnapped, he promised the pirates that he would crucify them.

After being released, Julius Caesar, together with a small fleet, captured his kidnappers and carried out what he had offered them and that they had taken for a joke.

Politics

Cornelia died in 69 BC. C., shortly after Julia, Caesar's aunt, who had been the wife of Cayo Mario, died. At the funerals of both women, images of people proscribed by the laws of Sila, such as Mario, his son and Lucio Cornelio Cina, were exhibited.

This is how Julius Caesar simultaneously won the support of the commoners, as well as the popular, and the repudiation of the optimates. He was also assigned the position of quaestor of Hispania Ulterior.

He served as a quaestor until 67 BC. C., date on which he returned to the capital of the Republic and his link with Pompeii, granddaughter of Sila and distant relative of Pompey, took place.

Julius Caesar, by Nicolas Coustou via Wikimedia Commons

Two years later, Julius Caesar was elected as a curul mayor. Some of his duties were construction and business supervision, in addition to the ability to act as chief of police. Also, he was in charge of organizing the Circus Maximus with his own funds.

César insisted on creating such memorable games that he became indebted for large sums of money. He carried out monumental works such as diverting the flow of the Tiber River to offer spectacles to the Romans. All in order to get closer to his goal, which was the Consulate.

Religious rise

In 63 a. C., Julio Caesar was named Pontifex Maximus, the highest position in the Roman religion. His home, from that moment on, was the Domus Publica and he also took responsibility as the father of the Vestal family.

Very close to his beginning in the position of Pontifex Maximus, his wife Pompeii had to organize the Bona Dea parties, in which men were not admitted, but to which the most important women of the city attended.

It was said that Publio Clodio Pulcro managed to sneak into the celebrations disguised as a woman with the intention of having relations with Pompeii. After that, Caesar decided to divorce, although there was never any evidence that such an event had happened.

No accusations were made against Pompeii or the young Clodius, but at the time, Julius Caesar said a phrase that passed down to posterity: “Caesar's wife should not only be honored; it must also appear so ”.

Road to the Consulate

In 62 a. C., Julio César was chosen like urban praetor. From his post, he had to be in charge of disputes between citizens of Rome.

While in office, he decided to support laws that favored Pompey, proposed by Quinto Cecilio Metelo Nepote, but they were vetoed by Cato.

After a year as urban praetor, Julius Caesar was appointed propretor of Hispania Ulterior. At that time Julius Caesar's debts were immense and he went to Marco Licinius Crassus who provided him with part of the money he owed on the condition that he support Pompey.

During his stay in the Iberian peninsula, he won some battles and obtained sufficient funds to return to Rome. Then, Cesar returned to the capital of the Republic where he had been granted the honorary title of "emperor", which was given to certain generals.

The emperor's acclaim guaranteed him a triumph, which was a civil and religious act in which the winner of a war was honored. But the complication came when he learned that his triumph would be celebrated simultaneously with the applications for the Consulate.

He had to choose between remaining in the military to accept his triumph or participating in the election and he opted for the latter.

consulate

Unable to prevent Julius Caesar from running for the Consulate, the optimates decided to present Cato's son-in-law, Marco Calpurnio Bibulus. The two were voted consuls in 59 BC. C., although Cesar had greater electoral support.

That same year Julio César married Calpurnia, daughter of Lucio Calpurnio Pisón Cesonino.

To continue with the agenda of reducing the government of Julius Caesar, Cato suggested that the consuls should take care of the bandits ravaging the area and this was done.

Pompey's army, which had recently been demobilized, needed some occupation. For this, an agrarian bill was proposed that should favor the former military and provide them with a job through which they could earn a living.

However, the proposal was blocked by the optimates until César decided to take it to the elections. There Pompey spoke and then Marco Licinius Crassus, with whom Caesar had already made agreements in the past.

First Triumvirate

Until then, Crassus had been supporting Cato, but seeing the new coalition the optimates lost all hope of maintaining the power they possessed as a majority. Thus was born the period known as the First Triumvirate, in which Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar participated.

In addition, to strengthen the political alliance between the two, Pompey married the only daughter of Julius Caesar. Young Julia was at least two decades younger than her husband, but their marriage was a success.

Many were taken by surprise by the union of these three men, but it is believed that this was not a spontaneous action, but that it had been carried out after a long time of preparation and with great care when executed.

Pompey needed land for his veterans, Crassus wanted a proconsulate for financial gain and glory. Meanwhile, Caesar could put the influence of the former and the wealth of the latter to good use to stay in power.

During a long period of the mandate, Bibulus decided to retire from political life without leaving office, as an attempt to stop the laws of Julius Caesar, who bypassed his blockade by taking the proposals to the elections and the tribunes.

Gauls

At the end of his period as consul, Julius Caesar managed to be appointed proconsul of Transalpine Gaul, Illyria and Cisalpine Gaul. Four legions were assigned to him under his command. His mandate would last five years in which he enjoyed immunity.

At the time of assuming office in Gaul, Julius Caesar was still in great financial difficulties. But he knew that if he ruled as was typical of the Romans, venturing out to conquer new territories, he would be successful in no time.

The same inhabitants of Gaul gave Julius Caesar the opportunity to launch his campaign when they informed him that the Helvetii had planned to settle in the western part of Gaul. Caesar used as a pretext the proximity of the area with Cisalpine Gaul, which was under his protection.

The fight that was fought began in 58 BC. C., but the warlike encounters between both sides were taking place for almost a decade in the Gallic War.

Julia, daughter of Caesar, wife of Pompey and one of the ties that kept them together died at that time. After his death the alliance between the two began to deteriorate and Julius Caesar's situation became delicate when he was so far from Rome.

Conquests

He made incursions into Brittany, but failed to establish a consolidated government in the area due to the short duration of his stays on the island. However, Julius Caesar gained dominion over approximately 800 cities and 300 tribes.

Vercingetorix surrendering to Julius Caesar, by Lionel Royer, via Wikimedia Commons

Julius Caesar took over Gaul Comata or "hairy", referring to the hair of its inhabitants. The new province included France and part of Belgium. The south of the Rhine was also in this territory, which currently corresponds to the Netherlands.

Caesar's vision during this period was reflected in his text Comments on the Gallic War. In the work of Plutarch, the historian affirms that the Romans faced more than three million Gauls, that one million were killed and another more enslaved.

Second civil war

Start

The alliance of Caesar and Pompey was broken, after the death of Julia and that of Crassus. Since then the clashes between the two began to get power in Rome.

That is why Celio proposed that Julius Caesar be allowed to run for the Consulate without appearing in the city, but Cato opposed that law.

Curio, who had been selected as a commoner tribune, vetoed the resolutions ordering Caesar to leave office. Around this time, Pompey began to recruit soldiers illegally and took command of two legions to confront Caesar.

The Senate asked Julius Caesar to dissolve his army in 50 BC. In addition, they asked him to return to Rome, since his period as propretor had ended. However, he knew that he was likely to be prosecuted for not having immunity.

In the year 49 a. C., it was proposed that if Caesar did not demobilize his troops he would be declared a public enemy, but Marco Antonio vetoed the proposal. The lives of Caesar's allies were in danger, so they left the city undercover.

The same year Pompey was given the position of consul without a partner, with which he obtained exceptional powers. On January 10, Caesar crossed the Rubicon together with the Thirteenth Legion.

Development

The senators left Rome when they learned that Caesar was approaching. Although the latter tried to make peace with Pompey, the latter went to Greece to organize his next actions.

Then, Julio César decided to return to Hispania. Meanwhile, he left Marco Antonio in charge of taking care of Rome. On the peninsula there were several entire populations, as well as legions, who were loyal to Pompey.

After consolidating his leadership in Hispania and getting Rome to have order again, Julius Caesar returned to meet Pompey in Greece.

In 48 a. C., Caesar was defeated, but managed to escape almost without damage from the battle of Dirraquium. Almost a month later they met again in Farsalia, but on that occasion Julius Caesar was the winner.

While Metellus Scipio and Porcius Cato took refuge in Africa, Pompey went to Rhodes, from where he left for Egypt. Then Julius Caesar returned to Rome where he obtained the title of dictator.

Victory

When Julius Caesar arrived in Egypt he was informed of the death of Pompey, which had been perpetrated by one of Ptolemy XIII's men in 48 BC. That was a blow to Caesar, since despite having been at odds in his last days, they had been allies for a long time.

He ordered the death of those involved in the murder of his former son-in-law and decided that Cleopatra should be the queen of Egypt instead of her brother and husband. Caesar participated in a civil war that took place between the pharaohs and in 47 BC. C., made his chosen reign.

Julius Caesar, photo by Andreas Wahra via Wikimedia Commons

Then he began an extramarital affair with the queen of Egypt, they even conceived a son who became Ptolemy XV, but was never recognized by Julius Caesar.

After briefly returning to Rome, where his dictator title was renewed, Caesar decided to go after his hidden enemies in North Africa.

After defeating all the former Pompey supporters at Tapso and Munda, Julius Caesar received the title of dictator for ten years. In addition, in 45 a. C., was elected as consul without a colleague.

Dictatorship

Julius Caesar offered pardons to almost everyone who had been his opponents. This ensured that, at least openly, no one would oppose his government. On the contrary, the Senate offered him all kinds of tributes and honors.

When Caesar returned, great parties for his victory took place. However, many considered it wrong to celebrate his triumph, since the dispute had been between Romans and not with barbarians. That is why he was only awarded honors for what he fought in foreign towns.

Gladiator battles, hundreds of ferocious beasts, naval battles, parades showing foreign prisoners in chains, and even human sacrifices, were some of the entertainments that Caesar provided the Roman people at his festivals.

Actions

The project that Julius Caesar had was to pacify the Roman provinces so that the anarchy that reigned had a brake. In addition, he wanted Rome to become a strong unit that included all its dependencies.

Many laws were quickly approved after his return to the capital, among them those that caused the most stir were those that tried to intervene in the private life of families, such as the number of children they had to procreate.

A forum was built in his honor. Also the purchase of subsidized food was reduced and agrarian reforms were enacted that favored members of Caesar's army with land.

In addition, he reformed the calendar, which until then had been dictated by the moon. Thanks to César, a model based on solar movements was accepted. A 365.25-day year was implemented, with an extra day every 4 years in February.

Three months were included, so that the seasons were well defined. The fifth month began to be called July, as it is until today, because it is the month of Julius Caesar's birth.

Julius Caesar reformed the tax laws so that each city could collect the taxes it deemed necessary without the capital having to be involved through an official. He also extended Roman rights to all the inhabitants of the rest of the provinces.

Extravagances

Among the honors offered to Julius Caesar, several of them scandalized the Romans in the Senate. One of those was the possibility of forming a cult of his person with Marco Antonio as priest. Also the fact that she could wear the dress of triumph whenever she wanted.

Many began to fear that he wanted not only to become a king, but a god. He was awarded a special Senate chair that was totally gold, to distinguish him from the rest.

Political power had been granted entirely to Julius Caesar without any opposition. In addition, he increased the number of senators to 900, thus flooding the institution with men who were faithful to him.

In February 44 a. C., Caesar got the title of perpetual dictator. This was one of the most alarming actions against Roman democracy and the one that prompted the conspirators to act quickly to try to save Rome from the man who seemed to be turning into a tyrant.

Plot

Julius Caesar planned to become a monarch, at least in fact he already possessed almost all the characteristics of one. Furthermore, some of Caesar's supporters had already proposed that he be given the title of king.

It is said that the people and their relatives, on several occasions, tried to call him rex, the Latin word for king, but Caesar rejected him. He probably did it to give an image of respect to the institutions established so far.

However, Marcus Junius Brutus Cepion, whom Caesar treated as his own son, began to conspire against the Roman dictator along with Cassius and other members of the Senate, who called themselves "the liberators."

In the days leading up to the assassination, many are believed to have warned César not to run in the Senate because he posed a danger. Various ways to assassinate Julius Caesar were discussed, but the one that won out of ideological charge was to end his life in the Senate.

Also Brutus affirmed to the conspirators that if their plan was discovered by somebody, all the conspirators had to take their lives immediately.

Although they had received the forgiveness of Julius Caesar, many of the men responsible for his death were the same ones who stood against him during the civil war and were motivated more than by the Republic by their resentment of yesteryear.

Murder

March 15 was known as the Ides of March, consecrated to the god Mars. During that day the Romans used to take the opportunity to settle pending accounts, but it was also a date of good omens.

That day Julius Caesar was to appear before the Senate. The night before, Marco Antonio had learned of the conspiracy, but did not know more details of how the attack against the dictator would be carried out.

Marco Antonio tried to go and warn Caesar, but the liberators knew his intentions and intercepted him before he could reach the Theater of Pompeii.

It is said that when Julius Caesar arrived at the session, Lucio Tilio Cimbro gave him a request to lift the exile on his brother and then took him by the shoulders and pulled his tunic, to which Caesar exclaimed wondering why the violent action.

The Assassination of Julius Caesar, by Vincenzo Camuccini via Wikimedia Commons

Then, Casca took out a dagger with which he wounded Julius Caesar in the neck, so the dictator held his arm while exclaiming "Casca, villain, what are you doing?"

In a panic, Casca called the other conspirators saying: “Help, brothers!” That's when they threw their daggers at Julius Caesar.

Filled with blood, Caesar slipped while trying to run for his life and was at the mercy of his attackers who did not stop stabbing him. 23 wounds were counted on Caesar's body when the attack ended.

There is discussion about his last words, but the most accepted version is that of Suetonius, who stated that when Julius Caesar observed that Brutus was one of those who were taking up arms he said "You too, my son?" and stopped fighting.

Great battles

The battle of Alesia, 58 a. C.

Alesia was a fortified settlement, located west of modern Dijon in France. There the battle was fought between the Gallic troops, commanded by King Vercingetorix, and the Roman ones, commanded by Julius Caesar.

The Gallic stronghold stood on a plateau and housed a confederation of peoples loyal to the king.

Although they had about 80,000 soldiers, they were fortified in that position because the Gallic commander thought that he could not face the Roman army of 60,000 men that was better trained and with superior equipment.

Caesar decided not to attack the Gallic position but to besiege it and make them leave due to the lack of provisions. Furthermore, thanks to the capture of some messengers and deserters, he learned that Vercingetorix had requested reinforcements from all the Gallic peoples.

The Roman commander ordered the construction of a fence around the plateau. This defense, about 16 km long, was reinforced with 24 watchtowers.

Also, a second fence was made with parapets behind the Roman positions, which formed a Roman fortification that surrounded the Gallic fortification.

During the year 58 a. C., simultaneously attacked the besieged and the reinforcements that had arrived but the defenses designed by Julius Caesar took effect and the Gauls had to withdraw after which their king surrendered alive.

The battle of Farsalia, 48 a. C.

During the Second Roman Civil War, Julius Caesar pursued his main opponent, Cneo Pompey the Great, to the territories of central Greece, who was supported by the majority of the Senate.

Julius Caesar, by Peter Paul Rubens via Wikimedia Commons

As the Caesarian troops were fewer in number, both in cavalry and infantry, and were tired and hungry, Pompey planted himself near Farsalia, the present Farsala, on August 9, 48 BC. C.

However, Julius Caesar's men were experienced soldiers after their participation in the Gallic campaign. They knew their commander's designs very well and were loyal to him, while the Senate troops were mostly novice recruits.

After a glance at the disposition of Pompey's troops, Caesar was able to anticipate his intentions. That, coupled with the fact that his army knew how to quickly execute the orders given by their commander, gave him victory.

The battle of Tapso, 46 ​​a. C.

On September 29, 48 a. C., Pompeyo was assassinated by Potinio, eunuch of king Ptolemy XIII of Alexandria. Pompeian troops, under the command of Metellus Scipio, had retreated to Tapso, near Ras Dimas, Tunis.

Julius Caesar laid siege to the city in February 46 BC. C. y Escipión did not wait for the defensive works to be completed and went out to meet them on April 6.

The Pompeian light infantry was supported by the war elephants on one flank, while the Numidian cavalry was on the other.

Caesar inserted the archers and slingers among his cavalry who attacked the elephants causing the animals to frighten. In their flight they crushed the light infantry. The cavalry and infantry of the Caesarian army pressed their peers for hours.

The Pompeians withdrew to the unfinished camp that was easily overrun by Caesar's cavalry. The survivors sought refuge in the Scipio camp, then returned to the protection of the walls of Tapso.

Despite Caesar's order, his men took no prisoners: some 10,000 Scipio soldiers who had laid down their arms were killed.

The historian Plutarco assured that the deaths on the Pompeian side reached 50,000 and that the casualties of the Caesarian army were barely 50.

References

1. En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Julius Caesar. Available at: en.wikipedia.org.
2. Encyclopedia Britannica. (2019). Julius Caesar - Biography, Conquests, & Facts. Available at: britannica.com.
3. Bbc.co.uk. (2014). BBC - History - Julius Caesar. Available at: bbc.co.uk.
4. Canfora, L. (2007). Julius Caesar. Berkeley: University of California Press.
5. Plutarch. (1997). Life of Caesar. Mexico City: FCE - Fondo de Cultura Económica.