JOHANNES GUTENBERG: BIOGRAPHY, PRESS, HONORS, FACTS - ARTE - 2024

Johannes Gutenberg (1400 - 1468) was a blacksmith, goldsmith, and inventor. He is remembered for having devised and manufactured the movable type printing press in Europe around 1450. This technology was used to reproduce the 42-line Bible.

Until then, the books that were made had to be copied by hand, this being the traditional and most popular way. Although wood printers had already been developed during the Middle Ages, the high cost and low durability of the molds made them impractical.

Johannes Gutenberg, by Unknown,, via Wikimedia Commons.

The arrival of the University in the 13th century opened the way to a large field for the dissemination of texts with subjects that were not related to religion, which created a market for copyists who preferred to work with paper instead of parchment because of its low cost..

Gutenberg created a system in which the characters were interchangeable at will and made of metal, allowing the pages to be designed efficiently, while increasing speed and durability, generating great savings for manufacturers.

Mass communication began to generate changes in the status quo. That is why Gutenberg is considered to have contributed to the great transformations that the world of the time experienced in areas such as politics, society and the sciences.

Data of interest

The possible origin of the movable type printing press appears to have been in Asia, although Gutenberg's creation does not show any relation to the mechanism used in the Far East. The idea probably arose while the Maguntine was living in Strasbourg.

His project remained secret during the first stage, but then some details came to light after a legal dispute with his first partners.

After having failed in his attempt to complete the creation with the first collaborators, Gutenberg returned to his hometown, Mainz, and there he sought a new capitalist partner named Johann Fust.

After some time, Gutenberg faced a second lawsuit in which Fust demanded the return, plus interest, of the money with which he had collaborated for the installation of his workshop.

Gutenberg's lack of resources caused him to lose the lawsuit and he had to deliver both equipment and materials to Fust, who turned this invention into a profitable business that quickly expanded.

He continued to do some work with his first printing press and shortly before his death in 1465, Adolf II of Nassau saved him from ruin by naming him a member of the court and granting him a kind of pension.

Biography

Early years

Johann Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg was born in Mainz in 1400. The exact date of his birth is not known, but the local government assigned him June 24, 1400 as a symbolic birthday to celebrate his achievements.

His father was a merchant and goldsmith named Friele Gensfleisch, a surname that could be translated into Spanish as "goose meat." The family belonged to the German patrician class from about the 13th century.

Gutenberg's mother was Friele's second wife and her name was Else (or Elsgen) Wyrich. The couple married in 1386 and had two more children, apart from Johannes. The boy had his first sacrament in the parish of San Cristóbal, near his home in Mainz.

The Gensfleisch family had inherited the right to practice in the Mint of the Archdiocese of Mainz. Thanks to this, great talents in blacksmithing and goldsmithing developed among the family members.

The young Johannes Gutenberg probably received training in family work during his early years.

Youth

Little is known of Gutenberg's early years. It is thought that, during a revolt in 1411 in Mainz, his family probably moved to Eltville am Rheim, in Spanish called "Alta Villa".

It is believed that during those years he attended the local university, since in that institution is the record of 1418 that claims that a young man referred to as "Johannes Eltville" studied there.

In Germany, individuals took the surname of the residence in which they lived. Later, Johannes took one of his mother's surnames because the meaning of the paternal was inconvenient and since then he has been known as "Gutenberg".

His father, Friele Gensfleisch, is known to have passed away in 1419 and Johannes was mentioned in documents relating to family inheritance. The death of his mother, which occurred in 1433, also transcended.

On the other hand, it has been said that due to the clash between the union members and the patricians that took place in 1428 in Mainz, the Gutenberg family had to leave the city. According to Heinrich Wilhelm Wallau two years later, Johannes was most certainly not in the city.

Strasbourg

From 1434 records began to appear that placed Johannes Gutenberg as an inhabitant of Strasbourg. It seems that during that time, the Maguntino obtained a job as a goldsmith for the local militia.

Gutenberg inventing the printing press, by Jean-Antoine Laurent, via Wikimedia Commons.

He then teamed up with Andreas Dritzehn, Hans Riffe and Andreas Helmann, who would provide him with funds in exchange for him making certain artifacts, as well as teaching them gem carving and polishing, as well as mirror making.

The origin of the union of those men had the purpose of creating articles that would be sold on the occasion of a pilgrimage that would arrive in Strasbourg to see some religious relics that should be exhibited.

However, the event never took place and Gutenberg's associates sued it in 1439. That is the first public mention of the inventions he was developing.

Johannes Gutenberg is also mentioned in a legal suit related to the failure to make a promise of marriage he made to a girl named Ennel zur eisernen Tür in 1437.

He lived in the parish of San Arbogasto until 1444. Possibly, Gutenberg's dream of creating the printing press came around 1436, but there is no accurate historical record in this regard and it is thought that he was polishing the details during his stay in Strasbourg.

Return to Mainz

In 1448 Gutenberg applied for a loan from Arnold Gelthus in Mainz. The previous four years are a dark period in its history, both its place of residence and its occupation are unknown.

A new society arose in 1450 between Johannes Gutenberg and a wealthy person named Johann Fust, also a resident of Mainz. The latter gave him the sum of 800 guldens to develop his project of the movable type printing press.

As insurance for the amount that Fust gave Gutenberg, the equipment made by the latter for the reproduction of books was offered. At that time, Peter Schöffer joined the work team, who later became Fust's son-in-law.

The requested amount was set aside for the printing of the 42-line Bible, the first major project that Gutenberg envisioned for its creation. The workshop was installed in Hof Humbrecht.

The creation of that work began in 1452, but it is believed that they were also dedicated to reproducing other types of texts that generated greater profits, including the printing of indulgences commissioned by the Church.

Between 1453 and 1455 the book that went down in history with the name Gutenberg's Bible was ready.

Legal conflict

Johannes Gutenberg and his partner Johann Fust had dissimilar views about the printing press project. The inventor and developer sought perfection regardless of cost, while the investor only saw it as a business that had to generate profits.

In 1455, Gutenberg was sued for the sum of 2,000 guldens, as his partner considered that enough time had elapsed since the loan was granted for the payment to have been returned.

At the time, Gutenberg did not have such a large amount of money, so he was forced to part with not only his creation, but also the working materials, which ended up in the hands of Fust.

Gutenberg Press (replica), by Patrice Audet,, via Pixabay.

Some think that was Fust's idea from the beginning, since together with Schöffer, who was an apprentice to Gutenberg, he continued with the 42-line Bible project and with as many commissions, thus converting the type printing press mobiles in a profitable business.

Johannes Gutenberg had to settle for keeping the prototype of the machine, but now he was once again without capital to upgrade it to the level of the model that was taken from him by Fust.

New beginning

The inventor was completely bankrupt after that conflict. But instead of sitting idle, he decided to continue developing new types and printing equipment to re-establish his ideal.

He teamed up with Conrad Humery and was thus able to work on much smaller than common type, inspired by the round, cursive type used by copyists who made manuscripts.

This style developed in the final years was used in works such as the Catholicon, reproduced in 1460.

The ruin

In 1459 Diether von Isenburg won the position as Archbishop of Mainz from his opponent named Adolf II of Nassau. Diether had played an important role against Count Palatine of the Rhine, Frederick I.

After all that he had paid to reach the archbishopric, Diether did not want to continue collaborating with what both Pope Pius II and Frederick III, emperor of the Holy Roman-Germanic Empire, requested of him.

It was because of Diether's constant refusal that Pius II decided to replace him with Nassau in October 1461. The former archbishop of Mainz was exiled by decree of the pope and a fierce confrontation between Adolf II and Diether began.

Von Isenburg allied himself with Frederick of the Palatinate, his old enemy, and also had the support of the ruling class in Mainz. However, Adolf II of Nassau entered the city in October 1462.

It eliminated the status of free men for the citizens of Mainz. Likewise, he looted local wealth, among which were the teams of Johannes Gutenberg, whom he also exiled from the city.

Last years

After leaving Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg settled in a place where he had previously lived and where he had some relatives: Eltville. There he began to work as a supervisor for a new printing company that belonged to relatives of his.

By the time Gutenberg was already an older man, his invention was a commercial success for those with whom he developed his idea, while he was mired in poverty and without due recognition for his great creation.

This was the case until on January 18, 1465, Alfred II of Nassau decided to honor him for the merits that man had achieved by naming him knight of his court (“Hofmann”). It is thought that at that time he returned to live in Mainz once more.

Thus it was that Gutenberg was saved from dying, practically mired in misery, since with the title conferred on him came an annual courtier's garb, as well as an annual measure of grain and wine for which he should not cancel any taxes.

Death

Johannes Gutenberg died in Mainz on February 3, 1468. He was buried in the Franciscan convent, which years later disappeared during a war, so his tomb was also lost.

Gutenberg's life is a sea of ​​unknowns, but his legacy was one of the first sparks that set in motion both intellectual and scientific development, which drove the great social models that we know today.

Gutenberg printing house

To create the movable type printing press, Johannes Gutenberg used his knowledge of blacksmithing and goldsmithing. He created wooden molds into which he cast an alloy of metals in the shape of the characters required in the composition of the text.

He made different types, which he carefully assembled on a stand that resembled a page. The plate on which these supports were located was made using a grape press common at the time as a base.

Gutenberg's Bible, by Ernst Zeeh,, via Pixabay.

To create the famous 42-line or Gutenberg Bible, he used a double-folio format in which two sheets were placed on each side. This means that four pages could be placed on each plate.

The measurement of the pages was the standard of the time, known as Royal, in which the folios were 42 x 60 cm. So each page had a final measurement of approximately 42 x 30 cm.

Another of the innovations in Gutenberg's work was the discovery of oil-based ink, instead of what was commonly used: water-based ink, which had a failure by not interacting properly with the metal.

Gutenberg Printed Books

- Letters of Indulgence, commissioned by the Catholic Church.

- Warning to Christianity about the Turks (Eyn manung der cristenheit widder die durken), propaganda pamphlet.

- Turkish bull, called by Calixto III to fight the Turks in 1456.

- Provinciale Romanum, list of dioceses and archdioceses.

- Medical calendar, 1457.

- Cisiojanus, calendar.

- Astronomical Calendar (1457).

- 36-line Bible (participation discussed).

- Catholicon.

- The 42-line Bible or Gutenberg's Bible, this was one of his most momentous works. It has been said to be one of the most beautiful to have been mechanically printed.

Books printed in the early years of the development of movable type printing are dubbed the "incunabula" and there are experts who are dedicated to studying these texts.

History of the printing press

Since ancient times there have been some primitive forms of printing such as stencil or Persian stamps. The most widespread mechanisms in times prior to the movable type printing created by Gutenberg were:

- Woodcut

It was implemented in the Far East since the second century, approximately. At first it was used to stamp figures on canvas, but later with the creation of paper in China, it allowed its use to be extended to the reproduction of texts.

The first samples that have been found in China shed light on the fact that the woodcut works were carried out since about the year 220. This technique was characterized by engraving letters or images on wooden blocks.

These blocks had ink applied to the etched surface and the paper to which the image was transferred was placed on them. The spread of this method became very popular in the 8th century.

It was not only used in China, but also in other areas of Asia, including Japan, although in the latter place its main use was the reproduction of religious texts. The first sample of printing on paper occurred during the Tang dynasty, between 650 and 670.

Process

The manuscript was copied onto waxed paper that was placed on a block of wood covered by a thin layer of rice. It was then scrubbed with a palm brush, allowing the paste to absorb the ink contained in the waxed paper.

After that the wood was slightly stained with the desired silhouette. The rest of the block was carved, highlighting the part where the transfer was located. From there, all pertinent corrections and printing tests were carried out.

When the expected result had been achieved, the block of wood was placed on a table with the engraving facing the upper part and that was soaked with ink.

The paper was then placed on the block and pressed against it, then the sheet was removed and placed in a place where it could dry. Each block was capable of producing about 15,000 impressions before wearing out.

The Song dynasty also used this method, especially for the reproduction of the Classics that were studied by Chinese scholars. It also served to commercialize works, although the preference for manuscripts, considered exclusive, prevailed.

Arrival in Europe

Woodcuts had been in use in the Near East and Byzantium since about the year 1000. However, it took three centuries for this method to really become popular in Europe.

Woodcut was used mainly for printing motifs on fabric. The most frequent was to use it to recreate religious images to adorn areas such as churches or convents. It was also very common for it to be used to stamp playing cards.

When learning about paper in Europe, during the 15th century, the “xylographic books” were born. These became popular around the same time that Gutenberg was working on his movable type press.

With a method similar to that used in Asia, 2 pages could be reproduced at the same time and created small, short and inexpensive works.

As movable type printing became popular throughout the European continent, woodcut reproduction became a cheap but much more laborious alternative.

The woodcut was very comfortable to carry out the engraving of images, but one of the elements against it was that the plates had to be replaced in their entirety when they were worn.

It was able to stay afloat for a longer time after the advent of Gutenberg's printing press thanks to techniques such as tonal woodcut, with which pictorial compositions using various colors could be created.

- Movable type printing in Asia

Ceramics

In Song dynasty China, around 1041, a man named Bi Sheng designed the first movable type printing press for which there are records, the difference is that the types in this case were made of porcelain.

Years later it was said that the author of that invention was Shen Kuo, but he himself credited the aforementioned Bi Sheng as the actual creator of the movable type printing press.

Although there are records of its use during the Kublai Kan government, it is known that it was not considered a practical method by contemporaries since its interaction with Chinese ink was not optimal.

Other materials

Between 1100 and 1300 there were some examples of printing presses with movable wooden types, these became popular especially in the governments of the Ming (1368 - 1644) and Qing (1644 - 1911) dynasties.

The Song and Jin also used printing presses with metal movable type (copper) for the issuance of paper money, but the support for this system was very little since Asia preferred woodcut from the beginning.

The Asian printing press and Gutenberg

There are conflicting positions about the possible relationship between Gutenberg's idea of ​​making a movable type printing press and the extensive use of similar methods in the Far East.

Gutenberg Statue, by Jul. Manias & Cie., Strassburg i. E., via Wikimedia Commons

Some argued that without a doubt there had to be some kind of connection. That is, they consider that Johannes Gutenberg had to have heard of those machines previously to develop his own idea.

For his part, the historian J. McDermott stated that no record has appeared linking the development of European printers with Asians, consequently and for lack of other evidence, Gutenberg's work should be considered independent.

The truth is that the movable type printing model became a leader in its field almost instantly in the West, this was largely due to the fact that the method was inexpensive, durable, fast and simple.

In addition, Gutenberg's past as a goldsmith not only allowed him to make durable materials, but also to create an aesthetically admirable work, which is why the 42-line Bible astonished his contemporaries.

Diffusion of the printing press

Since Gutenberg had the first legal dispute with his original partners, Dritzehn, Riffe and Helmann, his ideas were not a complete secret.

However, it was after the second lawsuit brought by Johann Fust that the movable type press became public knowledge. This is how the word began to spread throughout the country and from there it became a continental phenomenon.

In the towns near Mainz some printing presses using the Gutenberg mechanism were soon installed. Later, it was those same local workers who took the idea to other countries, but apprentices from different places also began to arrive in Germany.

The main cities to develop an industry around the printing press were Cologne, where the idea arrived in 1466, Rome (1467), Venice (1469), Paris (1470), Krakow (1473) and London (1477).

This commercial branch became indispensable for the big cities that began to compete with each other for the continental leadership of book production.

Italy

In Italy the trade around the printing press had a particular development, since Venice became one of the capitals of the business throughout Europe. However, it was not the city of canals that housed the first Italian printing press.

Subiaco, which was part of the province of Rome, was home to the first printing press in Italy. In 1465, A. Pannartz and K. Sweynheyn were responsible for this undertaking and two more years passed until one of these businesses was established in the city of Rome.

Venice, on the other hand, had granted the monopoly concession to Johhan von Speyer for 5 years in 1469, but this entrepreneur passed away before the end of the period.

It was then that others interested in making the business of mechanical text reproduction flourish.

Among the most prominent was N. Jenson, who was able to run 12 printing presses at the same time. He was one of the main precursors for Venice to position itself as the publishing capital of the Middle Ages.

Another of the main elements of the Italian printing press was its relationship with the Renaissance and the return to both Greek and Latin classics. One of the promoters of this was Aldus Manutius, owner of the Aldina printing press, which was dedicated to recovering and disseminating these works.

France

Three large cities emerged for the publishing world in France. In the case of Paris, the capital became one of the great distribution sites since 1470 due to the high demand for texts among residents interested in keeping up with the currents of thought of the time.

The first printing press was installed by Ulrich Gering, Martin Crantz and Michael Friburger, who received a grant and an invitation from the rector of the Sorbonne.

The group stayed there for two years and produced 22 titles. In 1472 they looked for an independent site to continue reproducing works on their own account as a private business.

Spain

In 1471 Enrique IV of Castilla and Bishop Juan Arias Dávila were working to give a good level to the General Study of Segovia, one of the things they considered necessary was to supply the students with academic materials.

Therefore, the bishop decided to invite Johannes Parix, who was the founder of the first printing press in Spain.

Some years later, Lambert Palmart, a native of Cologne, established his own printing press in Valencia in 1477. The first book of literature printed in Spain was made on Valencian plates: Obres o trobes en lahors de la Verge Maria, written in the dialect local.

Others

Krakow was another of the great publishing centers of Europe. The first printing press that settled in the city was that of Kasper Straube, in 1473. He was originally from Bavaria, where he learned the trade.

However, at this time there were no reproductions of texts in the Polish language.

On the other hand, in England it was William Caxton who started the printing business by setting up one in Westminster in 1476.

Working Press, by Edward Haigh, via Pixabay.

The subjects most valued by the English of the time were chivalric romances, as well as translations, highly oriented to literature.

The first work reproduced in the Caxton press for which records are kept was The Canterbury Tales, or The Canterbury Tales in Spanish, original by Chaucer.

New life style

There were not a few factors that influenced to turn the invention of Johannes Gutenberg into one of the technological advances that changed the social order established for centuries in humanity in a drastic and hasty way.

The University and capitalism, which collaborated with the rise of a growing bourgeois or middle class, were great promoters in the massification of this creation.

In less than 50 years after the printing press appeared in Mainz, more than 270 cities had their own.

By 1500, more than 20 million copies had been reproduced thanks to movable type. But the number of texts in 1600 already reached 200 million copies to have been created with the popular Gutenberg press.

This invention was a great ally of the Renaissance, since thanks to it the classics that had been forgotten and that had been replaced by religious texts provided by the Church, which managed the market for manual reproductions, were echoed throughout Europe..

So Westerners had access to a wealth of information that was unmatched by what they had experienced during the rest of the Middle Ages.

This is how the climate was prepared for the social, religious and intellectual revolutions that came in later years.

Gutenberg and revolutions

Ideas could be transmitted with unprecedented speed thanks to Gutenberg's printing press.

For the first time, the knowledge could spread and go to different places quickly. Information began to be an important aspect for people and freedom of thought developed.

The Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien (Collection of all distinguished and memorable news) emerged, which was the first printed newspaper in history. It was directed by Johann Carolus and its first copy was issued in 1605.

The printing press also had a stellar role in other changes in European society, such as the Reformation, promoted by Martin Luther.

The massive reproduction of the Bible made way for many to own one and stopped conforming to the interpretation of Catholic clergy.

In addition, scientists and thinkers also passed on their ideas, findings and theories, which eventually gave way to the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution or the fight against absolute monarchies as they did in the American or French Revolution, in later centuries.

Although Gutenberg did not manage to be a successful trader, he opened the doors to the most drastic and diverse changes known to the West, which is why his contribution to society is unprecedented.

Honors

Johannes Gutenberg has received the most diverse tributes, from a large number of statues that adorn various places in Germany, to his inclusion in the rankings of the most influential people.

One of the most famous statues representing Gutenberg is found in his native Mainz, specifically in Gutenbergplatz (or Gutenberg Square), being created by the plastic artist Bertel Thorvaldsen, in 1837.

Likewise, the center of higher education in Mainz was renamed in honor of his illustrious son: Johannes Gutenberg University.

Gutenberg Square in Mainz, by Charles Marville, via Wikimedia Commons

In the city there is also the Gutenberg Museum, open since 1901, in which pieces related to the printing press and its creator are exhibited.

In addition, there is a lunar crater named in honor of the German inventor, it has a diameter of 74 km and a depth of 2.3 km. Similarly, Franz Kaiser named the asteroid he found in 1914: "777 Gutemberga", in honor of Gutenberg.

Others

In 1997 LIFE - Time magazine chose the movable type printing press developed by Johannes Gutenberg as the most important invention of the second millennium. Similarly, in 1999 the A&E chain selected him as the most influential person in that period.

There is an initiative that was baptized as "Project Gutenberg", which is an electronic bookstore in which more than 60,0000 titles are offered to users around the world for free as a tribute to the inventor of the printing press.

This character has also appeared on honorary stamps.

Gutenberg International Society

This organization was founded in 1900. It emerged as an initiative of the people of Mainz for the 500th anniversary of the birth of Johannes Gutenberg. The main reason was the creation of the homonymous museum that was inaugurated a year later.

In 1901 the first meeting of the International Gutenberg Society was also held, where the principles that would govern it were established: research and promotion of the printing press, publishing industry, typography and other written media.

The mayor of the city at that time, Heinrich Gassner, was selected as the president of the organization, while the Grand Duke of Hesse, Ernst Ludwig, agreed to act as its patron.

For several decades the Gutenberg Museum and the Mainz Library worked side by side, until in 1927 both institutions separated. In 1962 a renovated Museum headquarters was opened to celebrate the anniversary of Mainz.

Gutenberg Award

One of the initiatives promoted by the International Gutenberg Society was the award, named in the same way in honor of the creator of the movable type printing press. This recognition was born in 1968 and was originally awarded every three years.

This distinction rewards the greatest exponents of the publishing world for their achievements, both aesthetic, technical or scientific in this field.

The city of Leipzig in Germany also created its own Gutenberg Prize for editorial directors. Starting in 1994, both cities began to divide the headquarters of the Gutenberg Prize each year.

The winner of the inter-annual award given by the International Gutenberg Society receives 10,000 euros. In 2018 it was obtained by Alberto Manguel, a Canadian author, translator and critic of Argentine origin.

While the winner of the Gutenberg Prize of the city of Leipzig for 2017 was Klaus Detjen for his career of more than 40 years working as a creator, typographer, editorial designer and teacher.

Other organizations have also taken the name of Johannes Gutenberg to give awards and recognitions to outstanding people in various areas related to the publishing world.

References

1. En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Johannes Gutenberg. Available at: en.wikipedia.org.
2. Lehmann-Haupt, H. (2019). Johannes Gutenberg - Printing Press, Facts, & Biography. Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: britannica.com.
3. Wallau, H. (1913). "Johann Gutenberg" - Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol 7. Available at: en.wikisource.org
4. Gutenberg International Society (2019). Die Gesellschaft - Gutenberg-Gesellschaft. Gutenberg-gesellschaft.de. Available at: gutenberg-gesellschaft.de.
5. English.leipzig.de. (2019). Gutenberg Prize. Available at: english.leipzig.de.
6. Gutenberg-gesellschaft.de. (2019). Gutenberg Prize - Gutenberg-Gesellschaft. Available at: gutenberg-gesellschaft.de.