INDEPENDENCE OF PERU: CAUSES, HISTORY, CONSEQUENCES AND HEROES - HISTORY - 2025

The independence of Peru was declared on July 28, 1821, although the armed confrontations lasted until 1824. The events that led to the creation of the new country, after centuries forming part of the Spanish crown, began in 1810, within a process of struggle for independence that affected all the Spanish territories of America.

The antecedents of the struggle for independence were a series of insurrections that broke out throughout the entire 18th century. The causes of these rebellions were, in essence, the same that would later provoke the independence process: the despotic and corrupt government of the viceregal authorities, the reforms decreed by the Bourbons that harmed the Creoles and the mistreatment of the indigenous people.

Proclamation of the Independence of Peru - Author: Juan Lepiani (1904) - Source: National Museum of Archeology, Anthropology and History of Peru

Apart from the previous motivations that already existed in the 18th century, the independence process was spurred by the Napoleonic invasion of Spain and the forced abdication of Fernando VII. After this, several rebellions of a liberal nature broke out in the Viceroyalty, which were successfully suppressed.

The second phase began in 1820, with the arrival of the so-called Liberation Expedition commanded by José de San Martín. Although their military campaign achieved the objective of declaring independence, the royalists were resisting in some areas. It was not until 1824, after the battle of Ayacucho, when all the Peruvian territory was liberated.

Background

Social discontent in the Viceroyalty of Peru during the eighteenth century caused the outbreak of numerous insurrections. Although there were their own characteristics in each of them, there were some common motivations.

The viceregal government was seen as authoritarian and corrupt. The corregidores were especially frowned upon, since abuses and excesses were frequent, especially against indigenous people. The collection of taxes also caused frequent complaints.

All this was aggravated by the proclamation of the so-called Bourbon Reforms. These brought with them an increase in taxes, in addition to granting privileges to the peninsular over the Creoles.

Although letters were sent from the Viceroyalty to the Spanish king to inform him of the abuses by the authorities, the Crown did not react. Given this, armed rebellions followed one another.

Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780-1781)

One of the most important rebellions among those that broke out in the Viceroyalty of Peru was led by Túpac Amaru II.

The real name of this descendant of the Inca royalty was José Gabriel Condorcanqui and he held the position of chief of Surimana, Pampamarca and Tungasuca. His rebellion began due to the abusive treatment received by the indigenous people, although later he also demanded that the townships be suppressed and that a Real Audiencia be created in Cuzco.

These requests were radicalized and Túpac Amaru II ended up demanding independence. Historians consider that it was the main antecedent of the struggle for the emancipation of Peru.

The insurrection began on November 4, 1780 and spread rapidly throughout southern Peru. Despite achieving some important victories, the troops of Túpac Amaru II ended up being defeated and the indigenous leader savagely executed by the Spanish.

Conspiracies between 1782 and 1810

From the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II until the beginning of the war of independence, other insurrections followed. The most important were the movement of Huarochirí, in 1782, and the conspiracy of Cuzco, in 1805. Both were repressed by the government of the viceroyalty.

Independence movements on the continent

In addition to the internal antecedents, the independence of Peru cannot be separated from the struggle that was taking place in the rest of the continent.

The example of the independence of the United States, the ideas of the Enlightenment and the abdication of the Spanish Bourbons after the French invasion were three of the factors that led the American territories to revolt.

The French had placed Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, on the Spanish throne. Resistance to this event broke out in much of the peninsula and government boards were created in the name of Fernando VII.

Fernando VII. Source: Francisco Goya

These government boards also appeared in the American territories. At first, many of them tried to achieve political autonomy, although swearing allegiance to the Spanish monarch. The reaction of the viceregal authorities was, in general, contrary to any attempt to grant self-government.

The positions were radicalized and insurrections began to break out against the viceroys. Over time, the request for self-government led to wars of independence and armies called patriots were formed. José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar were the most prominent leaders in the south of the continent.

Causes of Peruvian independence

Many of the causes of the independence movement were already present in the rebellions of the 18th century. Furthermore, they were common to most of the Spanish colonial territories in America.

Social division

Peruvian society was strongly divided between the privileged aristocracy and the common people, without forgetting the even more precarious situation of the indigenous people. All advantages, both political and economic, were reserved for the upper class.

This division was also based on the origin of each individual. Those born in the peninsula were the only ones who could access high political and ecclesiastical positions, while the Creoles (whites of Spanish origin born in America) were banned from those positions. The discontent of the latter caused them to be the leaders of the independence movements.

However, in Peru there was a difference with the rest of the Latin American colonies. Thus, its independence movement failed to gain sufficient strength to achieve its purpose. In the end, the armed intervention under the command of foreigners such as San Martín or Bolívar was necessary for emancipation to take place.

Jose de San Martin

Bourbon reforms

The Spanish kings decreed in the 18th century a series of reforms that affected the colonial administration, as well as the economy. The purpose was to obtain greater profits and establish the Spanish authority.

In practice, these changes harmed the criollos, a group that had achieved economic and social power, but were denied access to the most important positions. The imposition of new taxes was another factor that increased discontent.

Economic crisis

The Viceroyalty of Peru was going through a serious economic crisis. Other territories, such as Chile or Argentina, had managed to establish themselves as exporters of minerals and precious metals.

Peruvians who did not belong to the upper class saw their situation getting worse and worse. In addition, the natives had to start paying a new tribute.

American and French revolutions

In addition to internal events, the independence of Peru and the rest of the Latin American territories also had external influences. The triumph of the revolutions in the United States, which led to its independence from England, and in France served as a stimulus for the Peruvian middle classes.

The ideas of the Enlightenment, protagonists in the mentioned revolutions, arrived in Peru. Many Creole intellectuals embraced these liberal ideas, as happened after the disclosure of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

Napoleonic invasion

In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte's troops invaded Spain. The French forced the Spanish kings to abdicate and put José Bonaparte in his place. When the news reached the Viceroyalty it generated a general rejection.

Despite the fact that, initially, government boards were created that swore allegiance to Ferdinand VII against French rule, over time the claim for self-government led to a struggle for total independence.

History-development and steps towards independence

Unlike other Latin American territories, Peru remained fairly stable after the Napoleonic occupation of Spain. In Lima, for example, no Governing Board was created. In addition, the viceregal authorities sent troops to Quito and La Paz to fight the junta that had been formed.

One of the causes of this tranquility was that, despite the fact that the Bourbon reforms had not favored them, the elites in Peru continued to take economic advantage of the political system.

On the other hand, the viceroyalty had to carry out some liberal reform at the request of the Regency Council. Despite the fact that Viceroy José Fernando de Abascal was not in favor, he was forced to establish a certain freedom of the press, to replace the councils with other more democratic organizations and to allow representatives to be elected before the Spanish Cortes.

However, the influence of the insurrections that had broken out in other areas of Latin America encouraged the pro-independence sectors in Peru.

Tacna

The first revolt broke out in Tacna, in 1811. The news about the advance of the Argentine patriotic troops in Upper Peru (now Bolivia) encouraged the supporters of independence to rise up against Viceroy Abascal.

The revolt began on June 20, with the assault of two royalist barracks. However, on the 25th the news arrived that the Spanish had defeated the Argentine patriot army in Guaqui. This caused discouragement in Tacna, which was used by the viceroyalty troops to end the insurrection.

Months later, there was a new uprising in Tacna itself, again motivated by the victories of the Argentine patriots. At the command of the Argentine troops was Manuel Belgrano, who tried to establish ties with the Peruvians to spread the rebellion.

The emissary from Belgrano to carry out this plan was Juan Francisco Paillardelli, a native of Tacna. The intention was that the whole of southern Peru would take up arms against the viceroy. On October 3, 1813, the patriots from Tacna captured the barracks of the vierrainato and captured the governor of the province.

The reaction of the royalists was immediate. On October 13, Paillardelli's soldiers were defeated and Tacna returned to Spanish hands.

Cuzco rebellion

A new rebellion, which began in Cuzco, ended up spreading throughout the south of the Viceroyalty. In 1814, the Constitutional Council and the Royal Court of Cuzco were at odds. The reason was that the first defended greater autonomy, as indicated by the Spanish Constitution of 1812, while the second refused.

This led to a failed uprising in 1813 and the imprisonment of its leaders, the Angulo brothers. In August of the following year, the prisoners managed to escape and organized a movement that took control of the city of Cuzco.

This movement had the support of Mateo Pumacahua, the chief of Chincheros, who had fought in favor of the Spanish Crown against Túpac Amaru II. His political change was due to the refusal of Viceroy Abascal to comply with the Constitution of 1812.

Pumacahua and the Angulo brothers sent troops to three different locations in an attempt to spread their insurrection.

Expansion of the insurrection

The leaders of the Cuzco rebellion sent a first contingent to Upper Peru. The army consisted of 500 riflemen and 20,000 indigenous people. On September 24, 1814, the patriots conquered La Paz. The royalists sent a regiment to retake the city, something they accomplished on November 1.

The second army sent from Cuzco headed for Huamanga, under the leadership of Manuel Hurtado de Mendoza. When they arrived in the city they found that it had been conquered for their cause by a rebellion led by peasant women. Their next destination was Huancayo, a town they took without having to fight.

The royalists sent a regiment from Lima to defeat the patriots. Their first confrontation took place in Huanta, on September 30, and concluded with the withdrawal of Hurtado de Mendoza's troops.

In January, after reorganizing, the Patriots met the royalists again, but were again defeated. Despite attempts to regroup, the betrayal of one of his officers led to the death of Hurtado de Mendoza and the surrender of his troops.

End of rebellions

The last of the expeditions was destined for Arequipa and Puno. At the head of these troops was Mateo Pumacahua himself, who managed to defeat the royalists in the Battle of Apacheta.

After this victory, the patriots were able to enter Arequipa and pressured the town council to recognize the Governing Board that had been formed in Cuzco.

The realistic counterattack was almost immediate. Upon being informed that the Vierrinato troops were approaching Arequipa, Pumacahua decided to withdraw, with which the city once again swore allegiance to the king.

After three months of tense tranquility, on March 10, 1815, patriots and royalists clashed near Puno. The military superiority of the viceregal troops decided the battle and put an end to this first stage of the struggle for independence.

Peru liberating expedition

The viceroy of Peru, after defeating the rebels, sent troops to fight the patriots in Chile. This intervention allowed the Spanish to reconquer the lost territory.

In 1817 and 1818, Lima sent two new expeditions to fight the patriots. The first achieved its purpose, but the second was defeated by the army of José de San Martín.

San Martín and the rest of the independence leaders knew that as long as Peru remained in Spanish hands, it would always be a threat to their purposes. For this reason, the independent governments of Chile and Argentina organized a military force to defeat the Viceroyalty.

Finally, Buenos Aires ignored the operation and the Chileans put San Martín in command of the ground troops and Thomas Cochrane in front of a maritime squad. The one baptized as the Liberation Expedition of Peru arrived in Paracas on September 7, 1820 and San Martín installed its headquarters in Pisco.

A few days later, the new viceroy of Peru, Joaquín de la Pezuela, announced that he was going to comply with the Cadiz Constitution of 1812 and contacted San Martín to start negotiations. On September 25, representatives of both leaders met in Miraflores, but could not reach any agreement.

Peru Campaign

Faced with the failure of the negotiations, the patriots began their military campaign. This began in the mountains of Peru from October 1820 and lasted until January 8, 1821. Between those dates, there were battles such as Nasca or the occupation of Ica, a town that proclaimed its independence on October 21.

After Ica, other cities fell into patriotic hands, such as Huamanga, which also proclaimed independence.

The royalist authorities not only had to face the army of San Martín, but also suffered several uprisings among their own troops. Thus, on October 9, the grenadiers stationed in Guayaquil rebelled in an action that culminated in the declaration of independence for that province.

First declaration of independence of Peru

The naval squad of the Liberation Expedition had blockaded Callao at the end of October 1820. In that maneuver, it managed to destroy the Spanish frigate Esmeralda, which practically eliminated the threat from the royal navy.

On November 9, the ships reached Huacho. San Martín, who was leading the expedition, went to Huaura, where he established his headquarters. In that town, the patriot leader declared the independence of Peru for the first time.

Lime

Defections limited the realistic response capacity. A good example was the uprising of the Numancia battalion, on December 2, 18120. Its soldiers joined the patriotic ranks.

Little by little, all of northern Peru became independent from the viceregal government. The patriots of Trujillo, Piura, Cajamarca, Jaén, Lambayeque or Maynas managed to emancipate themselves from the Spanish crown without having to fight.

Another rebellion in the royalist countryside, the so-called Mutiny of Aznapuquio, forced Viceroy Pezuela to abandon his post. His replacement was General José de la Serna.

Meanwhile, the patriotic troops continued to advance. The ports of Tacna and Arica were attacked, forcing the new viceroy to meet with San Martín. This meeting took place on June 4, 1821, near Lima and concluded without agreements.

The patriot army was getting closer and closer to Lima and the viceroy chose to leave the capital on June 5, 1821. His troops accompanied him in his flight, leaving Lima at the mercy of San Martín.

It was the population of the capital itself that asked San Martín to enter with his army. The patriot leader accepted, but on the condition that the city council swear independence. The first patriotic soldiers entered the city on July 9. Three days later, San Martín did it.

Proclamation of Independence

San Martín settled in the Palace of the viceroys. From there, on July 14, he invited the Lima city council to swear independence.

Act of Independence of Peru

The mayor of the city proceeded to call an open council for July 15. The invitation was intended for the upper classes of the city, as well as the aristocracy and the ecclesiastical and military authorities.

The Act of Independence was signed during the town hall opened by some 300 citizens, a number that was expanded in the following days. The author of the document had been Manuel Pérez de Tudela, a city lawyer who would later occupy the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Proclamation of the Independence of Peru

The public ceremony of proclamation of independence was held on July 28, 1821. The chosen place was the Plaza Mayor de Lima, where San Martín delivered the speech that included the following words before some 16,000 people:

“From this moment on, Peru is free and independent by the general will of the peoples and by the justice of their cause that God defends. Long live the homeland! Long live freedom! Long live justice! ”.

Later, he repeated the ceremony in other places in the city, such as the La Merced square, the Santa Ana square and the Inquisition square.

Consolidation of independence

San Martín was the first leader of the independent nation after assuming the protectorate in August. This mandate lasted for a year, during which time the government institutions were formed, the first Constitution was promulgated, and the first Constituent Congress was installed.

Meanwhile, the Spanish continued to dominate the mountains and Upper Peru. The viceroy had settled in Cuzco and the danger of a reconquest continued.

San Martín leaves Peru

The Constituent Congress was elected by the citizens on December 27, 1821. Its mission was to choose the form of government and decide which institutions should be created.

At that time, Simón Bolívar continued to face the royalists, reaching the city of Quito. Antonio José de Sucre, for his part, was in Guayaquil when he requested the help of San Martín to face the Spanish troops.

Antonio jose de sucre

After liberating Quito and Guayaquil, San Martín and Bolívar met in that last city on July 26, 1822. Both leaders negotiated whether the province of Guayaquil should be integrated into Gran Colombia or Peru, as well as Bolívar's help to defeat to the last Spanish bastions in the country.

Likewise, they discussed the system of government that should be implemented. San Martín was a supporter of a monarchy, while Bolívar was betting on the republic. Finally, it was Bolívar who achieved his goals and Guayaquil was left in the hands of Gran Colombia.

San Martín was beginning to find opposition from some of his supporters, who thought his government was not being positive. In September 1822, José de San Martín decided to leave Peru and make way for new leaders.

Political instability

After the departure of San Martín, Congress formed a Governing Board. Political instability seized the country and, in addition, the Spanish defeated the Peruvian troops on several occasions. Given this, José de la Riva Agüero led the so-called Martín de Balconcillo, a coup against the junta.

The royalist army, led by Canterac, continued to represent a great danger to the new country. On two different occasions, the Spanish came to temporarily occupy the capital, Lima.

The first of these occupations led to the removal of the president and his replacement by Torres Tagle. However, De la Riva did not accept the congressional decision and formed an alternative government in Trujillo. At those times, the possibility of a civil war was very high.

Arrival of Bolívar and end of the war

Faced with the realistic threat and taking into account internal problems, Congress decided to ask Bolívar for help. The Liberator arrived in Lima on September 1, 1823 and was appointed the highest military authority, with a rank equivalent to that of the president of the government.

In 1824, some Chilean and Argentine soldiers mutinied at the Callao Fortress and joined the Spanish. The reason for the rebellion was the delay in the payment of their salaries, but their support for the royalists caused the Congress to cede all powers to Bolívar.

An external event, the absolutist restoration in Spain, weakened the royalists in Peru. Some supported that return to absolutism, while others, like the viceroy, were against it. The confrontation between both sides was used by Bolívar to attack Canterac on August 6, 1824. The so-called Battle of Junín ended with the victory of the patriots.

A few months later, on December 9, royalists and patriots clashed in the last great battle of the war, that of Ayacucho. The victory of the seconds, under the command of Sucre, marked the end of the Spanish danger in Peru. The Capitulation of Ayacucho became the document that sealed the country's independence.

Despite this, there were still some enclaves in Spanish hands. The last stronghold to surrender was the Fortress of Callao, which held out until January 1826.

Consequences

How could it be less, the Independence of Peru brought consequences in all areas, from society to the economy.

Political consequences

In addition to the birth of a new country, Peruvian independence meant the end of Spanish rule in the American continent. Peru had become the last place controlled by the Spanish monarchy, with which its emancipation represented the beginning of a new historical stage.

The Constituent Congress of Peru was formed in 1822 and the following year the country was organized as a republic. The constitution promulgated in 1823 marked the division of powers and followed liberal principles.

Economic consequences

The years before independence had been marked by a serious economic crisis. The warlike confrontation and instability during the independence process only aggravated the situation.

The leaders of independent Peru tried to improve the economic situation by taking a series of measures. Although they could not reform the fiscal system established by the viceroyalty, they were favored by the rise of international trade. Finally, a slight improvement began to occur.

Social consequences

As has been pointed out, Congress approved a constitution of a liberal nature, in accordance with the ideology of a good part of its members. However, Peruvian society noticed very little of this circumstance.

The social classes continued being the same as before independence, although with the Creoles gaining weight within the upper classes. The common people, for their part, continued to have far fewer rights.

The heroes of Independence (Peruvians)

When it comes to naming the heroes of Peru's independence, a lot of attention is usually paid to figures like San Martín, Bolívar or Sucre, all born outside of Peruvian territory.

Although their participation in the entire process was decisive, there were also protagonists born in Peru.

Mateo Pumacahua

Mateo García Pumacahua was born on September 21, 1740 in Chinchero, Cuzco. His father was the chief of that town.

Despite its indigenous condition, Pumacahua played a very important role in crushing the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II. His work in that historical episode received the recognition of the then viceroy of Peru, Jauregui.

Pumacahua maintained his loyalty to the Spanish Crown until 1814, when he joined the insurrection led by the Angulo brothers. At the head of his troops, he obtained important military victories against the royalists and was the architect of the capture of Arequipa.

On March 11, 1815 he was defeated by the Spanish at the Battle of Umachiri. Captured, he was beheaded on March 17 in Sicuani.

Francisco de Zela

This Creole had come to the world in Lima, on July 24, 1768. His role in the independence process began in Tacna, where he worked as a monera foundry.

Francisco de Zela organized the first independence rebellion that took place in the city. At first, the rebels managed to take the city, but the royalists quickly counterattacked. After regaining control, Zela was sent to Lima, where he was tried and exiled to Panama.

Manuel Pérez de Tudela

Pérez de Tudela was born in Arica on April 10, 1774. His role in the struggle for independence was not a military one, but he participated as a lawyer. In this way, he was in charge of the defense of the patriots arrested for their activities.

On the other hand, Pérez de Tudela collaborated closely with San Martín and was the author of the Act of Independence of Peru. Likewise, he was part of the first Constituent Congress and of the Supreme Court of Justice

Cayetano Quirós

Cayetano Quirós was a slave in his hometown of Ica until he managed to flee from his owner. Together with other black maroons, he formed a band of bandits that acted until 1820. That year, upon learning of the arrival of San Martín to the coast of Peru, Quirós tried to enlist in the patriotic army.

At first, his request was rejected by a patriot captain in Supe. Quirós then went to Huara, to try to convince San Martín himself to allow him to enlist. The independence leader accepted Quirós' request and allowed him to lead a group to carry out guerrilla actions.

After the patriots were defeated at Ica in 1822, Quirós and his people were left alone in the fight in the region. Given this, the royalists intensified their search, until they captured him in Paras. He was shot on May 5, 1822.

Angulo Brothers

The four Angulo brothers were born in Cuzco, without the exact dates being known. All of them participated in the struggle for independence.

The names of these brothers were José, Vicente, Mariano and Juan. The first three led the rebellion that took place in Cuzco in 1814, along with Mateo Pumacahua.

José came to hold the highest military position during that insurrection. Vicente was promoted to brigadier and left with Pumahuaca for Arequipa to try to spread the rebellion. Mariano, the general commander of Cuzco, was one of the leaders of the expedition to Huamanga. Finally, Juan, who was a clergyman, acted as secretary to his brother José.

When the Cuzco revolt was defeated, all the Angulo brothers, with the exception of Juan, were arrested and sentenced to death. The sentence was carried out on May 29, 1815.

Jose de la Riva Agüero

Born in Lima on May 3, 1783 into a Creole family, José Mariano de la Riva Agüero y Sánchez-Boquete joined the independence cause while still very young.

During a stay in Spain at the time of the Napoleonic invasion, Riva Agüero came into contact with some Masonic lodges with a presence in Latin America. Upon returning to the Viceroyalty, in 1810, he became one of the intellectuals with the most participation in the anti-colonial conspiracies in the capital.

Later he collaborated closely with San Martín, who appointed him Prefect of the department of Lima during the Protectorate. His stay in that position lasted until the departure of San Martín and the creation of a Governing Board.

His dissatisfaction with the decisions of that Board, in addition to his concern about defeats against the royalists, motivated Riva to carry out a coup and become the first president of the Republic of Peru. His failure in the Second Intermediate Campaign against the Spanish meant the end of his government.

Riva Agüero had to go into exile due to his disagreements with Congress and with Bolívar. For a time he lived in Guayaquil and later he moved to Europe. His return to Peru took place in 1833 and he managed to be elected deputy to the Convention.

References

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