SPANISH EMPIRE: ORIGIN, VICEROYALTIES, CHARACTERISTICS, COLONIES - HISTORY - 2025

The Spanish Empire was the set of territories governed by Spain between the 16th and 19th centuries. However, some historians dispute that denomination, since, with the exception of Carlos I, no monarch was granted the title of Emperor; Most historians use the term to classify that stage of Spanish history.

In general, the discovery of America is considered the beginning of the Empire. Shortly before, the marriage between the Catholic Monarchs had meant the union of the two most important crowns of the peninsula. After the arrival of Columbus to the new continent, the Spanish monarchy promoted the colonization of the discovered lands.

Spanish Empire, 18th century. A.cano.2

To administer these territories, the Spanish created two administrative entities, the Viceroyalty of New Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru. Along with its colonies in Asia, Africa and Oceania, at the height of the Empire, Spain controlled nearly 20 million square kilometers.

The Empire began to decline from the 18th century. Wars, mismanagement and other factors caused its economy to deteriorate enormously, despite the resources it obtained from the colonies. Finally, during the first decades of the 19th century, their territories in Latin America became independent, marking the end of the Empire.

Origin

Burgundy cross. Ningyou.

The integration of the crowns of Castile and Aragon through the marriage of Isabel with Fernando, the Catholic Monarchs, marked the beginning of the construction of the Spanish Empire.

Despite this, Ferdinand and Isabella did not unify the Crowns and both kingdoms retained their own legal institutions. Similarly, marriage did not mean the establishment of an economic or social unit.

What did contemplate integration was to follow common lines in the extension of the territory, starting with the areas of the peninsula that were still in the hands of Muslims. Likewise, they agreed is to try to politically isolate France and to enhance the presence of Aragon in the Mediterranean.

On the other hand, Castilla maintained all authority on matters concerning the Atlantic slope, competing with Portugal for control of the ocean.

For this reason, Christopher Columbus's trip was a matter for Castile alone and, once the new lands were discovered, it was the kingdom of Isabel that obtained the territorial right to colonize.

Discovery of America

Christopher Columbus at the court of the Catholic Monarchs

The last Muslim enclave on the peninsula, the kingdom of Granada, fell into the hands of the Catholic Monarchs in 1492. Almost immediately, Queen Elizabeth lent her support to Christopher Columbus in trying to find a route to the Indies by sailing west, avoiding the difficulties of traditional routes.

However, the place where Columbus arrived on October 12 was not on the Asian continent. Along the way, the Genoese navigator found new lands that he did not have: America.

The new continent was claimed by the Catholic Monarchs, although they encountered opposition from Portugal. It was Pope Alexander VI who settled the dispute, dividing by means of the Treaty of Tordesillas the areas of Spanish and Portuguese influence.

That agreement gave Spain the right to take over almost the entirety of the new continent, with the exception of what, today, is the extreme of Brazil. In addition, the pope gave Spain the responsibility of evangelizing the indigenous people he encountered, something that legitimized the colonization.

From that moment, the Spanish began to colonize America, exploring in search of new lands in which to settle.

Capitulations and requirements

With the endorsement granted by the papacy, the Castilians seized political and territorial power in America. For this, they created capitulations, contracts of connection between the Crown and a private individual to regulate the discoveries and settlements in the new continent.

According to these agreements, Castile ceded part of its rights to the conquerors, although it maintained the main ones, especially that of sovereignty.

Besides, they also established the figure of the requirements, a document that had to be read to the natives, who possibly did not understand anything, to inform them that, if they did not accept the conquest, they would face a war.

In addition to these figures, the Spanish organized two institutions to control commercial and legal relations in America. The former were in charge of the Casa de Contratación, while the Council of Castilla took charge of the latter.

Succession in the empire

When Queen Elizabeth passed away, the rights to the new continent were inherited by her daughter Juana. This, accused of having mental problems, could never exercise her dynastic rights and several regents succeeded each other who reigned in her place.

The regency period lasted until 1516, when King Ferdinand the Catholic died. After this, the throne was occupied by the son of Juana and Felipe de Habsburgo, Carlos, heir to Castile and Aragon. This would be the first to govern the two territories in a unified way and, consequently, the Indies.

German emperor

The new monarch, as the son of Philip of Habsburg, inaugurated a new royal dynasty in Spain: the Austria.

During the government of Carlos I, which lasted until 1556, the Spanish explored and conquered most of the American continent, beginning their economic exploitation. It so happens that he was the only monarch who received the title of Emperor. also receiving the name of Carlos V of Germany.

His successor, Felipe II, consolidated and promoted trade between the colonies and the metropolis. Likewise, he was responsible for the class organization of the society of the new continent.

The new lands conquered during the reign of Carlos I forced the government institutions to modernize. In 1523, the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies was created, with powers to appoint ecclesiastical and administrative positions, examine the Public Treasury, organize military affairs, and prepare laws.

This institution was completed with the formation of two large administrative entities: the Viceroyalty of New Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru.

Asia, the Pacific and Africa

Spanish colonial territories were not limited to those established in America. In Asia and some Pacific islands, for example, the Hispanic presence had begun in January 1521, during the Magellan expedition.

Shortly after, it reached the territory of the Philippines, which became the crown jewel among the Spanish possessions in that part of the world.

On the other hand, geographical proximity had caused the Spanish to have established some possessions in Africa even before the Empire was created. Melilla, a city located in the north of that continent, was one of its first settlements. Later, he also established colonies in the Gulf of Guinea.

Viceroyalties in America

Map of the territories of the Spanish Empire. Trasamundo

As noted above, the large areas conquered by the Spanish in America forced the creation of various territorial entities to facilitate their government. The first two were the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Established in 1535, and the Viceroyalty of Peru, created in 1542.

Each of them had several governorates, in charge of the political and military management of each territory, and various audiences, essentially judicial institutions. In this way, the American colonies acquired their own entity, separated from the Crown of Castile.

Viceroyalty of New Spain

Map of the Viceroyalty of New Spain

This Viceroyalty, for the most part, included the North American territories of the Crown: present-day Mexico and those that the United States would later annex. In addition, it also occupied part of Central America and, at its peak, encompassed the Philippines and other islands in Asia and Oceania.

The creation of the Viceroyalty occurred after the conquest of Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire. As the conquest progressed, the increasing extension of conquered territory caused serious administrative problems. To stop them, Carlos I, in 1535, signed the decree establishing the Viceroyalty.

As in the rest of the American Viceroyalties, the King of Spain was the most authoritative figure. Its functions were delegated to the figure of the Viceroy. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was dissolved in 1821.

Viceroyalty of Peru

Viceroyalty of Peru in 1650 - Source: Daniel Py, via Wikimedia Commons

After defeating the Inca Empire, the Spanish conquerors maintained a series of civil wars between them that did not allow to stabilize the territory. To try to improve the situation, the Spanish king issued a Royal Decree in 1534 with which he created the Viceroyalty.

Its territories were very extensive, encompassing, in its most splendid moment, the current Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, part of Argentina and Chile. The Bourbon reforms caused it to lose part of its dominions in favor of new viceroyalties.

Before the loss of those territories, the Viceroyalty of Peru had been the main possession of the Spanish Empire. Its wealth provided great benefits to the crown, especially thanks to its mineral deposits.

As in the rest of the Spanish dominions in America, at the beginning of the 19th century several independence rebellions broke out. After several years of conflict, the various territories of the Viceroyalty gradually became independent countries.

Viceroyalty of New Granada

Viceroyalty of New Granada - Source: John Cary

The Viceroyalty of New Granada was created much later than the previous two. Their territories had been part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, but the great extension of this caused, within the framework of the Bourbon reforms, the king decided to divide it in 1717 and create a new entity.

Nueva Granada encompassed the current Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. The capital was established in Santafé de Bogotá.

Its history was short and convulsed, since, after being founded in 1717, economic problems caused it to disappear in 1724. Somewhat later, in 1740, it was re-founded, until the triumph of the first independence rebellions made it disappear in 1810.

The Viceroyalty would still be established again for a few years when King Ferdinand VII tried to regain control of the area in 1816. Finally, its final disappearance was in 1822, when the different territories were consolidating their independence from the Spanish Crown.

Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata

New map of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata.PNG: Franco-eisenhowerCoast, Rivers, modern borders, sea: Natural Earth (EPSG 102032) derivative work: rowanwindwhistler, via Wikimedia Commons

The last of the Viceroyalties created in America was that of the Río de la Plata. Like the previous one, their territories had been part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. It was Carlos III, in 1776, who promulgated its formation.

This Viceroyalty included, according to the current names, Argentina, Bolivia, Uruguay, Paraguay, part of Brazil and northern Chile. If capital was established in Buenos Aires.

Its creation was due to several reasons, among them the pressure that Portugal was exerting on the Spanish possessions in Brazil. Likewise, it was a way of trying to strengthen defenses against the threat of English attacks.

Starting in 1810, a series of rebellions ensued that sought to end Spanish rule. The Viceroyalty began to disintegrate and, after a few years of war, the different territories were declaring their independence.

characteristics

The Spanish Empire, given its duration, went through several stages with different characteristics. However, there were some that remained, to a greater or lesser extent, throughout its existence.

Phases

Historians distinguish several stages within the centuries of existence of the Spanish Empire:

- The beginnings: from the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs to the discovery of America promoted by Queen Elizabeth I.

- El Siglo de Oro: Spain lived a great moment in the field of science and the arts. Gold from the colonies meant that it could handle many more resources, although mismanagement left the country bankrupt.

- From the Battle of Pavia to the Peace of Augsburg: through the Peace of Barcelona, ​​signed by Carlos I and the Pope, in 1529, he recognized the Spanish monarch as King of Lombardy. Likewise, the document named Spain as a defender of Catholicism. In America, the conquered territory increased.

- From San Quintín to Lepanto: England and Spain were, for a few years, allies. However, the country continued to be involved in multiple war conflicts, which further hurt finances.

- The last Spanish Habsburgs: the Spanish Empire began to lose strength. Portugal regained its independence and Spain lost its territories in the Netherlands. France began to position itself as the most important power.

- The Bourbon Empire: the great loss of international influence left Spain at the mercy of the European powers.

Dynasties that ruled it

During the time that the Spanish Empire maintained its power, the Crown was occupied by three different monarchical dynasties:

- Los Trastamara: it was in power until the death of Juana I “la loca”, in 1555.

- The Habsburgs: better known as the Habsburgs, they came to the throne in 1555 and kept it until 1700, the date of the death of Carlos II. This dynasty starred in the rise and fall of the empire.

- The Bourbons: they replaced the Austria as the ruling dynasty in 1700. The first Bourbon to occupy the throne was Felipe V.

Extractivist economy

The economic system that the Spanish imposed in America was the extractivist one, that is, it was based on obtaining and taking advantage of its natural wealth. To take advantage of it, they had to use slave labor from Africa.

The Spanish founded many agricultural estates, rich in products such as tobacco, sugar cane or cocoa. However, the main benefits for the Empire came from the exploitation of mineral deposits.

Despite the wealth obtained, the imperial economy always went through problems. The main cause, apart from the frequent wars in which he participated, was the disastrous administration of the country and the colonies.

Society and miscegenation

The society of the Spanish colonies was very estamental, with differences in rights depending on the race of each individual.

Thus, in the upper part of society were the peninsular Spaniards, the only ones who could access high political and ecclesiastical positions.

Behind them were the Creoles, children of Spaniards born in America. These were gaining influence over the years, both economically and politically. They were the protagonists of the wars of independence.

On the last steps were the mestizos, children of parents of different races. These castes, the names they received, multiplied in number, receiving names such as mestizo (Spanish and indigenous), zambo (indigenous with black) or mulato (Spanish with black), among many other possibilities.

The Indians were also located in that lower part of the social scale. Although the Spanish kings enacted laws to prevent their exploitation, on the ground they were rarely enforced.

Finally, the need for labor led to the arrival of many slaves from Africa.

Religion

The Catholic Monarchs expelled from the peninsula all those who were not Catholics. After the conquest of America, the pope gave them the responsibility of bringing Christianity to new discovered lands.

The so-called Spiritual Conquest was one of the main tools to reinforce the power of the Crown in the new American territories. To do this, the missionaries had to eliminate the ancient beliefs of the indigenous people and replace them with Christianity.

Among the friars, priests and missionaries who traveled to America, there were different ways of facing this evangelization. Thus, some chose the route of repression to convert the indigenous people. Others, however, advocated the right of the natives not to suffer ill-treatment, arguing that they should be free men.

In addition to the evangelizing work, the Catholic Church assumed, almost exclusively, educational tasks. Some learned the indigenous languages ​​and drew up dictionaries in Spanish.

This educational work had a double effect. On the one hand, the indigenous people who received training had better opportunities. On the other, however, it was a process of acculturation that stripped many native peoples of their cultural roots.

Spanish colonies around the world

The Spanish Empire not only occupied a large part of the American continent. He also controlled various territories in Asia, Africa and Oceania.

America

The Viceroyalty of New Spain was made up of the territories of present-day Mexico and the United States. Likewise, it included Alaska and the Yukon Territory, along with the Antilles. Finally, its dominance extended to Guatemala, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Belize, Honduras and Costa Rica.

For its part, the Viceroyalty of Peru included Peru itself, Colombia, Argentina, Ecuador, Panama, Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, the Galapagos, part of Brazil and Venezuela. Starting in the 18th century, two new viceroyalties emerged when Peru was divided.

The Empire also controlled many Caribbean islands: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Montserrat, Saint Martin, Anguilla, Bonaire, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Curaçao, Aruba, Jamaica, Virgin Islands, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Barbados, Bermuda, Saint Bartholomew, Turks and Caicos Islands, Saint Lucia, Cayman Islands and the archipelago of San Andrés and Providencia.

Asia and the Pacific

In Asia, the main Spanish possession was the Captaincy General of the Philippines, which included the islands of the same name and several territories of the so-called East Indies.

The latter included Brunei, West Papua, northern Taiwan, parts of Indonesia: Ternate and Tidore; Macao (China), Nagasaki (Japan), Malacca (Malaysia), parts of India: Goa, Angediva, Damán and Diu; East Timor and Ceylon.

Likewise, it had a couple of enclaves in the Persian Gulf: Muscat (Oman) and Qeshm (Iran).

Among all these territories, the most valuable to the Empire were the Philippine Islands. It was Magellan who established the first alliances with the inhabitants of Cebu. The Portuguese sailor, in fact, died in a battle trying to fulfill his commitment to help them in their fight against the natives of the neighboring island of Mactan.

Later, Juan Sebastián Elcano took charge of the expedition, reaching the Moluccas in 1521. After his return to Spain, the Empire claimed the sovereignty of the discovered territories, which provoked the protest of Portugal, which already controlled the Moluccas.

Finally, a new Spanish expedition reaffirmed their rights in 1542 and the archipelago was baptized in honor of Felipe II, then crown prince to the throne.

Africa

Despite the geographical proximity, the Spanish possessions in Africa were not as extensive as the American ones. In addition to the Canary Islands, it ruled over present-day Mozambique, Angola, Cape Verde, Somalia, Guinea-Bissau, Tetouan, Casablanca, São Tomé and Príncipe, Cabo Juby, Melilla, Isla de Limacos, Isla de Alboran, Islas Alhucemas, Islas Chafarinas

In addition to the previous territories, it established several enclaves in the north of the continent, highlighting the cities of Ceuta and Melilla. Likewise, at one point it controlled part of present-day Morocco, including the Sahara.

Other areas that briefly belonged to the Spanish Empire, later ceded to the Ottoman Empire, were Oran, Algiers, Bejaia, Tunis, Bizerte, Monastir, Susa, Mahdia, La Goleta, among others.

Europe

In Europe, Spain also had several possessions. To begin with, in the year 1580, Portugal was annexed, although only until 1640.

In addition, he also ruled parts of Italy, such as the kingdom of Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, the Duchy of Milan, parts of Tuscany, and the Marquis of Finale.

During some periods, the Empire controlled some areas of Italy, such as Roussillon, the French Basque Country, Nice and Livia.

Maximum extension

Most historians agree that the maximum extent of the Spanish Empire reached 20 million square kilometers.

Philip II

Although Felipe II did not inherit the crown of the Holy German Empire from his father, Carlos I, he soon began to expand his dominions. In this way, he added Portugal, some Italian territories and the Netherlands to the already extensive Spanish possessions.

It was at this time that the maxim that Philip II ruled an empire in which the sun never set became popular.

Apart from the aforementioned territories, Felipe II had under his command Luxembourg, Franche-Comté, part of the African coasts, most of America, the Indian coast and areas of Southeast Asia.

In total, it is estimated that their domains covered 31 million square kilometers, although given the administrative separation of Portugal and its possessions decided by the monarch, the extension of the Spanish Empire was somewhat less.

Decline and loss of colonies

Felipe III, heir to Felipe II, is considered by historians as an ineffective king. When he died in 1621, his son, the fourth monarch with the same name, ascended to the throne.

It was with Felipe IV that the Spanish Empire lived its last years of splendor. During his reign the wars were frequent and resulted in the loss for the Spanish crown of Portugal and the United Provinces.

However, the decline of the Empire began as early as the 18th century. Spain was seriously affected by the outbreak of a world economic crisis. In addition, the country was involved in the War of Succession after the death of Carlos II, which aggravated the situation.

This conflict culminated in the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Through this agreement, Spain lost its dominion over the Italian and Dutch territories that they had held for years. However, it still retained all of its American and Asian colonies.

Added to all of the above was its participation in the War of the Quadruple Alliance, between 1710 and 1720. The result for Spain was disastrous, since it meant the end of its condition as the main European power.

Twilight of the Empire

Already under the Bourbon dynasty, Spain was not able to regain the splendor of its Empire. At the beginning of the 19th century, it began to lose territories in America.

The first of them was Louisiana, which reached as far as Canada. France, led by Napoleon, took over the territory as part of the peace treaty of 1800, although three years later it sold it to the United States.

The Battle of Trafalgar, developed in 1805, meant the destruction of the Spanish fleet, which diminished its ability to defend the Empire. Three years later, the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by the Napoleonic army, had communication with the overseas territories.

The French occupation led to the outbreak of several popular uprisings and had a significant impact on the American colonies.

The Spanish War of Independence, name of the fight against Napoleon, was followed by the reestablishment of an absolute monarchy, with Ferdinand VII on the throne.

Independence of Latin American countries

As noted, the Napoleonic invasion of Spain had very important consequences in the American colonies. The Spanish king was replaced by José Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother.

In the Spanish possessions in America there had been a long time since there was a trace of discontent towards the colonial authorities.

The criollos, who had gained an important presence in the economy and in local and regional politics, could not access the most important positions. Furthermore, the Crown did not allow them to trade on their own with other countries.

It was the Creoles who organized the first rebellions. At first, they wanted to create autonomous governments, but maintaining fidelity to the deposed Spanish king, Fernando VII. However, when the French invasion of the peninsula ended, the situation did not calm down.

In addition, the reaction of the colonial authorities to the first rebellions, despite the fact that they manifested their loyalty to the king, caused the insurgents to change their objectives. In a short time, wars that sought total independence from Spain broke out in all Latin American territories.

By 1824, Spain had lost all of its American positions, with the exception of Callao, which the Spanish would abandon two years later, and Puerto Rico and Cuba.

In Spain

The era after the recovery of the throne by Ferdinand VII was plagued with disputes and confrontations between conservatives and liberals.

The former, in addition to maintaining an absolutist regime, wanted the country to maintain its status as an international power. Attempts to do so led to further political and economic instability.

During the following decades, Spain managed to maintain control of some areas of its former Empire. However, at the end of the 19th century, new nationalist and anti-colonial movements appeared that ended their presence.

Cuba, for example, became independent in 1898, when Spain had to fight a war with the United States. That same year, and also with US support, the Philippines achieved its independence.

The Treaty of Paris forced Spain to definitively renounce Cuba, in addition to cending the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States.

Last territories

The rest of the territories that Spain still held, mainly in Africa, were achieving their independence after the Second World War. Thus, in 1956, Spain undertook the withdrawal from Morocco, although it preserved Ceuta, Melilla, the Sahara and Ifni.

From that moment on, the Spaniards had to confront armed groups that tried to annex these territories to Morocco, although Ceuta and Melilla were incorporated as Spanish provinces in 1959.

Finally, in 1969, Spain had to withdraw from Ifni. Six years later, it did the same with Western Sahara.

For its part, anti-colonialist movements also appeared in Guinea after the Second World War. In 1963, Spain agreed to grant limited autonomy and in 1968 full independence.

References

1. Euston96. Spanish Empire. Retrieved from euston96.com
2. del Molino García, Ricardo. The Spanish Colonial Empire: 1492-1788. Obtained from revistacredencial.com
3. González Aguilar, Héctor. The viceroyalties of the Spanish empire in America. Obtained from panoramacultural.com.co
4. New World Encyclopedia. Spanish Empire. Retrieved from newworldencyclopedia.org
5. The latin library. The Spanish Empire. Retrieved from thelatinlibrary.com
6. Lewis, Nathan. The Decline of the Spanish Empire. Retrieved from newworldeconomics.com
7. Vicente Rodriguez, Catherine Delano Smith. Spain. Retrieved from britannica.com
8. Spanish Wars. 17th Century - The Empire Declines. Retrieved from spanishwars.net