CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE: CHARACTERISTICS, ECONOMY, ORGANIZATION - HISTORY - 2025

The Carolingian Empire is the term that historians use to name the empire ruled by the Carolingian dynasty during the 8th and 9th centuries AD. Although the dynasty was started by Pepin the Short, the creator of the empire was his son Charlemagne.

Although there are some differences of opinion between the experts, the majority places the disappearance of the empire in the death of Charlemagne himself, since his sons proceeded to divide up the territory. The last Carolingian monarch was Louis V, King of France who died in 987.

Carolingian empire. Blank map of Europe.svg: maix¿? Derivative work: Alphathon, via Wikimedia Commons

At its peak, the Carolingian Empire reached an area of ​​1,112,000 km² and a population of between 10 and 20 million people. Charlemagne, who wanted to recover the ancient Roman Empire, allied himself with the Catholic Church, being named "Emperor who governs the Roman Empire" by the Pope.

During his government there was an impulse of education and culture, although always controlled by the Church and directed to the upper classes. Society began to show characteristics that would give way to feudalism, with the appearance of the territorial nobility and some vassals who ended up linked to the lands they worked.

Origin

The Roman Empire, dominating all of Western Europe for centuries, fell completely in 476. The so-called barbarian kingdoms came to control the continent. Among them, the most important was that of the Franks.

Expansion of the Franks. No machine-readable author provided. Roke ~ commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims)., via Wikimedia Commons

Clovis, one of the monarchs of the Franks, managed to unify a good part of the Germanic kingdoms. His dynasty was renamed Merovingian, in honor of his grandfather Meroveo.

The death of Clovis, in the year 511, caused that the kingdom was divided in four: Neustria to the west of France; Austrasia to the east; Burgundy in the south-central region and Aquitaine in the south-west.

The continuous fighting between the Merovingians made their power diminish, as did their prestige. In fact, they were called "the lazy kings."

Pepin the Short

The decline of the Merovingians led to the nobles coming to hold true power in the shadows. The most important members of the nobility were called palace stewards. At the beginning of the 7th century, the stewards of Austrasia achieved supremacy over those of other kingdoms.

Carlos Martel was one of the most prominent members of this family of butlers. He was, among other things, responsible for stopping the Muslims at the Battle of Poitiers, which gave him great popularity.

His son, Pepin the Short, finally dethroned the Merovingian king whom, in theory, he served. With the backing of the Pope, he was named King of the Franks in 754, achieving religious legitimacy among his subjects. This would be the origin of the Carolingian dynasty.

Pepin received the title of Patricius Romanorum ("protector of the Romans") from the hands of Pope Stephen II. The following year, Pepin handed over to the papacy the reconquered territories located around Rome, allowing the founding of the Papal States. All of this strengthened the alliance between the Church and the newly created Carolingian dynasty.

Charlemagne

On the death of Pipino, in 768, his kingdom was divided between his two sons: Carlos and Carloman. However, the second preferred to retire in a monastery, passing away shortly after. This left his brother as the sole monarch.

Carlos, known by the nickname of Charlemagne, became one of the most powerful and important personages in European history. In a few years, he created an empire that occupied much of the continent, seeking to recover the splendor of the ancient Roman Empire.

Location

When Charlemagne reached the throne, he set out to restore the dominions of the Roman Empire, as well as consolidate Christianity as the only European religion. To do this, he began by subjecting the Saxons of northern Germany and forced them to convert to that religion.

In 788, Tasilón III, Duke of Bavaria, took up arms against Charlemagne. He easily ended the revolt and annexed the territory to his kingdom. This, apart from growing their dominions, served to weaken their rivals.

From that date until 796, the Carolingian monarch continued to expand his empire, reaching present-day Austria and parts of Croatia.

Hispanic brand

At the same time, Charlemagne conquered the Lombard kingdoms of Italy, as they had begun to harass the Pope. Likewise, he passed the Pyrenees, trying with little success to defeat the Muslims who then controlled Spain. It was only able to occupy a small territory to the north of the peninsula, the so-called Hispanic Brand.

Protector of christianity

Charlemagne based a good part of his power on his status as a defender of the Christian religion. The bishops and abbots sought his protection, granting him the role of leader of Western Christendom.

Pope Leo III chose Christmas Day 800 to crown Charlemagne as "Emperor who rules the Roman Empire."

The ceremony, celebrated in Rome, seems that it had not been requested by the monarch, who did not wish to find himself in debt to the Church. With this appointment, the papacy tried to delimit the imperial authority against its own.

On the other hand, being named heir to the Roman Empire generated disputes with the Byzantines, who considered themselves the true holders of the legacy of Rome.

General characteristics

As noted above, Charlemagne sought to recover the splendor of ancient Rome, in addition to seeking to consolidate the Christian religion throughout the continent.

Alliance with the Papacy

One of the most prominent characteristics of the empire was the alliance between political and religious power. Charlemagne received the title of emperor from the Pope, which gave him a religious legitimacy in front of all his subjects and, especially, before his rivals and the nobility.

This alliance turned Charlemagne into a kind of armed wing of the Church, something that the religious institution needed due to its weakness at that time.

Strong government

The emperor knew the problems that his predecessors had to face whenever they extended their territories. Controlling the nobility of the conquered lands and protecting the borders required a strong government, with control mechanisms over internal and external enemies.

Cultural splendor

Although he himself was illiterate, Charlemagne was a great promoter of culture. His government stood out for the creation of several schools and centers of knowledge, such as the so-called Palatine School. This period is called by the historians "Carolingian Renaissance".

Social structure

Another characteristic of the Carolingian Empire was the formation of a social structure based on a pyramid of fidelity. At the top of that pyramid was the emperor himself. His way of reinforcing his authority was to create a system of vassalage, giving land to the nobles in exchange for obedience and support.

On the other hand, in the lower area of ​​the pyramid were the peasants. These, in most cases, were serfs linked to the land without the possibility of abandoning it.

Economy

The type of economy that developed during the Carolingian Empire is very similar to the medieval one. On the other hand, it has characteristics typical of the Central European area.

Experts discuss whether it was just an agrarian-based economy, only subsistence, or if there was some exchange of goods.

Territorial property

Agriculture was the main base of the economic structure during the Empire. This led to land ownership being the most important element in defining the relationships between the different social classes.

Within agriculture, it was the cultivation of cereals that provided the greatest source of income. It should be noted that there was no import or export mechanism, so each region had to produce enough to be self-sufficient.

This caused that the owners of the lands were the only ones who obtained profits and, therefore, could accumulate certain wealth. As was normal at the time, most of these landowners were religious and, in addition to the land, they had vassals to work the crops.

This type of economy caused small and medium-sized properties to disappear, increasing the owners who accumulated large tracts of land. It was, in short, the step prior to the appearance of medieval feudalism.

Commerce

There is hardly any evidence of commercial activity during the Carolingian Empire. There are only references to the transport of small quantities of wine, salt and some luxury items that came from the East. There was, although it was forbidden, slave trade in some parts of the empire.

Mining

The exploitation of mines, whether for minerals or precious metals, had disappeared. Whether it was due to abandonment, the depletion of the seams or the high taxes on the activity, mining had been abandoned.

Monetary reform

When Charlemagne came to power and expanded his empire, one of his claims was to destroy the great variety of existing currencies. Thus, he tried to create one that was valid throughout the territory.

In 781 he established a monetary system that was taken as a model in much of Europe. It was based on a silver coin, called a pound, divided into 240 denarii.

The sou, which was worth twelve denarii, was used as currency of account. This sou was never minted, but bonds were issued to buy the necessary goods. Thus, for example, a sou of grain was equal to the amount of grain that could be purchased with twelve denarii.

However, historians point out that monetary exchanges were almost non-existent, as it seems to indicate that there were no coins of lesser value.

Political organization

According to many historians, although the Carolingian Empire claimed the heritage of Rome and Christianity, its political organization maintained Germanic structures.

Charlemagne ruled his kingdom absolutistly, as did the Roman emperors. However, there was a kind of assembly of free men who met twice a year (as in Germanic societies) to approve the capitular laws.

Like other Germanic monarchs, Charlemagne preferred to reside in his country domains. When he was not there, he established his residence in Aachen, considered the capital of the Empire.

In that city, he brought together a group of officials who were in charge of administrative tasks, such as the chancellor or the chamberlain.

Administrative divisions

In order to rule the vast territory that Charlemagne had conquered, he had to divide it into various administrative units.

First were the counties. They were constituencies administered by a count appointed by the monarch. The count was the head of the judicial and military power and in charge of collecting taxes.

The marks, on the other hand, were the border areas of the empire. Charlemagne knew that these were areas in which the presence of the army was necessary to defend against possible invasions. The brands were controlled by the Marquis.

Finally, there were other autonomous territories, the duchies, which belonged to the dukes. Despite that autonomy, they were obliged to pay tribute to the empire.

The way to control the counts and marquises was to create a body called missi dominici. These were couples formed by a religious and a lay person who swore allegiance to the emperor. His mission was to tour the counties and marks to verify that the nobles did not exceed their functions.

Society

The society of the empire was based on castes, with the figure of the emperor at the top of the pyramid. Charlemagne distributed lands or other favors as a way to guarantee the fidelity of the nobility.

At the base were the vassals. Although, in theory, there were no slaves, the truth is that the peasants tied to the land had no rights and were considered the property of the lords.

Road to feudalism

At the beginning of the 8th century, with the increase in the number of landowners, many disadvantaged sectors had to submit to the owners of the lands. Thus, they ended up becoming land tenant farmers. In exchange for work they got protection and some of what they produced.

For their part, the nobles had a similar bond with the emperor, creating a pyramid that was consolidated until it reached feudal society.

The other social sector was the clergy, in charge of controlling the faith of the population. In addition, the Church became the owner of large tracts of land, thus also playing the role of landowner.

Rise of the nobility

The appearance of the nobility was the way Charlemagne organized the ancient Roman aristocracy that lived on the edge of the Empire when the Germanic invasions arrived.

As noted above, some were appointed Marquis (responsible for the Marks), Counts (authorities in the Counties), or Dukes (holders of the Duchies).

In this way, Carolingian society became composed of two large groups: the privileged (nobles and clergy) and the underprivileged.

Villas

The whole new social structure was formed around the villas, which were properties of the landowners. The villas were authentic production units, being divided into two parts.

The first was the reserve, the place where the great houses of the lords and the smallest of the serfs were built. Likewise, it was where the chapels and other buildings stood.

The second zone was the meek, a term that designated the lands used for agricultural work.

In principle, this model of society ended slavery. In practice, slaves were replaced by serfs, who remained the property of the landowners.

Religion

The alliance created between Charlemagne and the Catholic Church sought the benefit of both parties. The papacy gave the emperor legitimacy and the emperor provided military security for the clergy.

Church - Empire Alliance

The aim of the close collaboration between the Empire and the Church was to unite Europe under a single religion and a single political system. The conquests made by Charlemagne also allowed the Church to expand its influence to other areas of the continent.

As an example of the latter, experts point to the disappearance of existing polytheistic beliefs in some areas of Germany and Saxony, replaced by Catholic beliefs. However, the attempt to expel the Muslims from Spain ended in failure.

Culture

Around 800, what experts call the Carolingian Renaissance emerged in Europe. It was a very important cultural boost, especially compared to the previous situation in that regard.

Charlemagne, like a good part of his contemporaries, was totally illiterate. However, he tried to improve the cultural level of the Empire, creating the Palatine School of Aachen.

Similarly, the emperor ordered the creation of schools, always controlled by the clergy. In the monasteries, libraries of great value were founded and the existing environment favored the appearance of writers and thinkers.

As was normal at that time, all this effort of cultural training was only aimed at the upper classes and civil servants, without the common people being able to access education.

Carolingian Renaissance

The most important point of the Carolingian Renaissance was the creation of the Palatine School. Its objective was to train the nobles and their children. The institution became a precedent for the continent, disseminating knowledge in the arts, sciences and letters.

The subjects taught were divided into two:

- Trivium: rhetoric, grammar and dialectic.

- Quadrivium: geometry, astronomy, arithmetic and music.

Education as a means of power

Many authors consider that the drive for education promoted by Charlemagne also had an intention to better control the interests of the ruling class.

On the one hand, only the nobles and the clergy could access the training. On the other hand, those in charge of imparting it were always religious, so all the teachings were impregnated with the precepts of Christianity and the concept of divine punishment was used for all those who thought differently.

Art

The most important artistic styles during the Carolingian Empire were based on classical Greek and Christian art. In addition, it had some influence from Byzantine and Islamic art.

Fall and dissolution

There is no consensus among historians when it comes to signaling the end of the Carolingian Empire. Some experts point to the death of Charlemagne, in 814, as the end of that historical epoch.

Others extend it until the Treaty of Verdun, which marked the division of the Empire in 843. Finally, opinions also appear that extend it until 987, when the last king of the Carolingian dynasty, Louis V.

Death of Charlemagne

Charlemagne died in 814, and immediately his empire was greatly weakened. The nobles began to demand greater independence and each region began to show a desire to extend autonomy.

Only one of Charlemagne's sons survived the emperor. It was Louis, called the Pious, who inherited the throne of the unified empire. In 840 after three civil wars, the new monarch died and his three sons proceeded to divide up the territory.

Treaty of Verdun

Division of the Carolingian Empire according to the Treaty of Verdun:. By Trasamundo, from Wikimedia Commons

In 843, as noted, the three sons of Louis the Pious signed the Treaty of Verdun to divide up the empire. With that agreement, Carlos el Calvo received a territory that corresponds approximately to present-day France.

For his part, Luis the Germanic, obtained Germania, which was equivalent to today's Germany. Finally, Lothario received the title of emperor and the lands between his two brothers. That territory was known as Lotaringia and included the Netherlands, Alsace, Switzerland and Italy.

In practice, this treaty marked the end of the empire created by Charlemagne. Later, several invasions of barbarian, Norman or Saracen peoples accelerated the decline. To this had to be added the growing power of the nobility, which further weakened the monarchy.

Causes of the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire

The causes of the rapid disintegration of the empire created by Charlemagne begin with the non-existence of a political organization that would provide it with strength. The organizational structure of the Empire was based on the fidelity of the nobles, something that without the personality of Charlemagne lasted very little.

The territories, on the other hand, were gaining autonomy over time. As there was no central army, it was the nobles who were in charge of the defense and only the great owners could afford to arm and maintain troops.

In this way, an intermediate class began to form between the imperial structures and the people. The extension of the territory made it inevitable that the vassals would end up obeying the local lords more than the distant emperor.

Experts point out that, during the life of Charlemagne, an event occurred that shows the decrease in the loyalty of the nobles as the basis of the social structure. In 807, the annual assembly of free men was scheduled. However, very few lords attended.

Charlemagne interpreted the absences as a rebellion and sent the missi dominici to investigate each County and Mark. Then I punish those who did not come.

References

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