CRISTERO WAR: CAUSES, DEVELOPMENT AND CONSEQUENCES - HISTORY - 2025

The Cristero War, also called Cristiada or Guerra de los Cristeros, was an armed confrontation that took place between 1926 and 1929 in Mexico. This conflict confronted the government and militias made up of religious, priests and lay Catholics. The main reason was the enactment of the Calles Law, which limited Catholic worship in the country.

The Catholic Church had always enjoyed great power in Mexico, even before independence. Already in the nineteenth century there had been attempts by the different governments to limit its influence, although during the Porfiriato it had returned to recover part of its privileges.

Popular Union Cristera - Source: Museo Nacional Cristero - User: Tatehuari on June 01, 2007

After the Mexican Revolution, the Carranza government promulgated the Constitution of 1917, which contained measures that limited ecclesiastical power. However, most of what was established in the constitutional text was not fully applied until the presidency of Plutarco Elías Calles.

The Calles Law caused many groups of Catholics to take up arms. Insurrections took place in several states and the government responded by sending in the army. After almost three years of conflict, the arrival to the presidency of Emilio Portes Gil and the mediation of the US ambassador allowed the end of the war to be negotiated.

Background

Since before independence, the Mexican Catholic Church had had great political, economic and social power. In the different struggles that had taken place, the institution had always positioned itself with the conservatives and the upper classes.

Reform laws

The arrival to the presidency of Juan Álvarez Hurtado, in 1855, meant the rise to power of a liberal current. The new president had always been against the conservative mentality, then associated with the Church.

Juan Alvarez Hurtado

Álvarez tried to change the laws to make Mexico a more secular country and eliminate some of the privileges of the Church. He, Ignacio Comonfort and Benito Juárez, his successors in office, promulgated the so-called Reform Laws, with which the separation between the Church and the State was made effective.

These laws provoked rejection in part of society, to the point of being the main cause of the so-called War of Reform. The then president, Benito Juárez, had to face this conflict and, later, the Second French Intervention.

Portrait of Benito Juárez -Source: portrait depicting Benito Juárez by Salvador Martínez Báez in the Library of Congress Hispanic Reading Room, derived from

Later, during the government of Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada in 1874, the Reform Laws were incorporated into the current constitution.

Porfirio Diaz

Portrait of President Porfirio Díaz 1877-1911

The Agora

The Porfiriato, the period in the history of Mexico during which Porfirio Díaz ruled, was very positive for the interests of the Church. This came to organize what was called "second evangelization" and founded many social movements.

Constitution of 1917

After the Mexican Revolution, many of its leaders saw the Catholic Church as a conservative and partisan force of the upper classes. For this reason, the Constitution of 1917 included several articles designed to curtail its power.

Swear of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (1917). Stories and Stories of Mexico

Among those articles was the one that demanded that education be secular and not controlled by the Church. Similarly, number five prohibited monastic orders, while number 24 did the same with public worship outside the churches.

Lastly, Article 27 limited the property rights of religious organizations and Article 130 took away some rights from members of the clergy, such as voting or participation in public life.

At first, the Catholics responded with a peaceful campaign to try to modify these measures.

Alvaro Obregon

Alvaro Obregon

The decade of the 20s of the 20th century began with an increase in tension between the Church and the Mexican government, then presided over by Álvaro Obregón. During her presidential term there were violent clashes between the CROM, a union close to the government, and the Catholic Action of the Mexican Youth.

At the beginning of 1923, the Vatican delegate went to bless the place where a monument to Christ the King was to be erected. The government thought that this was a challenge to its authority and the Constitution and ordered the expulsion of the cleric.

The confrontation continued between 1925 and 1926. In a few months, 183 priests of foreign origin had to leave Mexico and 74 convents were closed.

Government of Plutarco Elías Calles

The arrival to the presidency of Plutarco Elías Calles meant that the relations between the Church and the State worsened even more. The new president mistrusted the Catholics, since he believed that their first loyalty would be to the Vatican.

One of the most controversial measures was the creation of the Mexican Apostolic Catholic Church, with the support of the CROM. This new institution followed the same doctrine, but without recognizing the Pope as the highest authority. The priest Joaquín Pérez proclaimed himself Patriarch of this new Church.

Plutarco Elías Calles. National Photo Company Collection.

ICAM tried to seize the Temple of Solitude, but a crowd of believers prevented it. In addition, groups were organized to protect the rest of the temples.

The governor of Tabasco, for his part, promulgated a law that required all priests to marry if they wanted to continue officiating masses. In Tamaulipas, on the other hand, foreign priests were prohibited from conducting ceremonies.

Given this, several Catholic movements united to found the National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty, in March 1925. Despite not being violent, the government ended up banning the association.

Streets Law

The publication in a newspaper of statements made by the Archbishop of Mexico José Mora y del Rio, contrary to the approved laws, provoked the anger of the government.

Calles reacted by ordering the archbishop's arrest and commissioning Congress to draft a new law affecting the Church.

The result was the proclamation of the so-called Calles Law, which regulated the number of priests in each temple, prohibited foreign priests, and prohibited the Church from participating in politics. Likewise, the law reinforced the constitutional article that declared that education should be secular and in the hands of the state.

Causes of the Cristero War

The aforementioned Calles Law was the trigger for the Cristero War. The approved measures generated the rejection of Catholics and Presbyterians.

Deterioration of relations with the Church

Relations between the Church and the Mexican State had been tense since the country's declaration of independence. During the 19th century, this resulted in various laws that sought to limit ecclesiastical power, including the one that recognized freedom of worship, in 1857.

The 1917 Constitution contained another series of articles that reinforced the secularism of the State and took power away from the Church. From its promulgation until the outbreak of the war, relations were getting worse and worse.

Mexican Constitution of 1917

The Catholic Church, in general, supported the government of Porfirio Díaz. This, in return, gave him important benefits. For this reason, the revolutionaries identified the religious institution as part of the privileged and Porfirian classes who wanted to fight.

The 1917 Constitution was drawn up after the triumph of the revolution. In it, Mexico was established as a federal, democratic and representative republic. In addition, the separation between the Church and the State and the secularism of the nation were guaranteed.

This implied that the Church lost its preponderance in education, freedom of worship was confirmed, its material goods were regulated, the legal personality of religious orders was eliminated and their participation in political life was vetoed.

All these constitutional articles were applied very loosely for many years. It was Obregón and, especially, Calles, who began to apply them strictly.

Promulgation of the Streets Law

Legally, the Calles law was an extension of the Penal Code published in July 1926. It contained a series of instruments to control and limit the Church's participation in public life.

The result in practice was not long in coming: on the day of its publication, public worship services were suspended and the temples passed into the hands of the Junta de Vecinos.

The law caused 42 temples to be closed across the country, in addition to the closure of 73 convents. 185 foreign priests were expelled.

In addition, the regulations limited the number of priests to one for every six thousand inhabitants. All these clergymen were required to register with their municipality and receive a license in order to carry out their activity.

Development

The Calles Law prompted a swift response from the Vatican. The first measure was to call for a boycott that paralyzed all religious activities in the country. Later, there were several demonstrations demanding the repeal of the law. The president reaffirmed his decision.

People of Mexico promoting the boycott of the Calles Law. User: Tatehuari on June 01, 2007

Pressure actions

After failing to achieve its goal, the Church supported an economic boycott against the government. This began on July 14, 1926 in some states such as Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas or Guanajuato, where it had a great impact.

Thus, Catholics in these states stopped going to theaters and cinemas, in addition to not using public transport. Some teachers even left their posts.

The boycott, however, failed in October of that same year. Despite the support of many Catholics, the wealthiest did not want to continue, as they lost money.

For its part, the government responded by closing more churches and rejecting the proposed amendment to the Constitution presented to Congress by the episcopate on September 22.

The Cristeros

The failure of these peaceful actions led to the radicalization of groups of Catholics. This was especially notable in Querétaro, Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Nayarit, Michoacán, and Colonia, as well as in areas of Mexico City and the Yucatán.

The leaders of these radicalized groups maintained their autonomy from the bishops, although the closeness was evident. In January 1927, they began to accumulate weapons and the first guerrillas, almost all composed of peasants, were ready to act. The main motto of the so-called Cristeros was Viva Cristo Rey!

First uprisings

In early 1927, Jalisco was the main focus of armed Catholics. Its leader was René Capistrán Garza, who also headed the Mexican Association of Catholic Youth. A manifesto published in the New Year and entitled 'To the Nation' became the call for insurrection.

In that writing, Garza affirmed that the hour of battle and of God's victory had come. His supporters moved to the northeast of Guadalajara, where they began to occupy small towns.

Soon, these rebellions spread through Jalisco, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and Michoacán. Later, they also occurred in almost the entire center of the country.

Despite managing to occupy some villages, the army used to regain control in a short time. The conflict, therefore, never seemed to turn in favor of either side.

Protagonism of the Mexican countryside

The vast majority of the armed actions took place in rural areas of the country, despite the fact that the rebel leaders came from the cities.

Some estimates indicate that, by 1927, the Cristeros numbered 12,000, a figure that increased to 20,000 two years later.

With some exceptions, the bishops distanced themselves from the armed struggle and tried to establish negotiations with the government with the mediation of the United States.

Meanwhile, the uprisings continued. On February 23, 1927, in San Francisco del Rincón (Guanajuato) the first Cristero victory took place in a direct confrontation with the army. However, the Cristero attempt to steal the money transported on a train in April of that year almost ended the insurrection.

The assault on the train, led by Father Vega, led to a shooting in which Vega's brother died. He ordered the carriages to be burned and 51 civilians died from the flames.

Public opinion, once the news was known, began to position itself against the Cristeros. By summer, the rebellion was almost over.

Cristeros killed hanging on utility poles in Jalisco. User: Tatehuari on June 01, 2007

Assassination of Obregón

The 1928 elections had Álvaro Obregón as their favorite candidate. This, unlike Calles, was willing to end the conflict and wanted to reach an agreement.

However, an attack by José de León Toral, a Catholic activist, ended Obregón's life.

New armed actions

During 1928 and 1929 the Cristeros regained the initiative. In part, this was helped by an army revolt in Veracruz, which forced the government to dedicate its efforts to suppress it.

The Cristero troops took the opportunity to attack Guadalajara, but were defeated. Later, they managed to take Morelos Tepatitlán, although they suffered the loss of Father Vega.

When the government put down the military revolt in Veracruz, it was able to focus on ending the Cristero troops. These, led by Victoriano Ramírez "el Catorce" tried to resist, but internal confrontations began to appear. The capture of "el Catorce" and his subsequent execution left his side without a clear leader.

Victoriano Ramirez. User: Tatehuari on February 29, 2008

Talks

The new president of the republic, Emilio Portes Gil, immediately began to negotiate peace. For this he counted on the mediation of the American ambassador.

On the part of the Church, the negotiations were led by Pascual Díaz Barreto, Bishop of Tabasco. Portes Gil himself participated in the meeting that took place on June 21, 1929.

All parties agreed to amnesty for rebels who wanted to surrender. Likewise, the parish and episcopal houses would be returned to the Church.

However, part of the Mexican Church did not agree with this solution. In addition, the National League for the Defense of Religious Freedom, where the Cristeros came from, complained about their limited participation in the talks. The result was the rupture between the bishops and the League and the latter's attempt to control the activities of the country's Catholics.

In this way, neither the League nor the majority of the Cristero troops accepted the agreement. Only 14,000 members of his troops accepted the amnesty.

End of the war

Pressure from the Americans led Portes Gil to announce that the Church was going to submit to the current Constitution, without any necessary changes to it.

Historians have described Church-State relations from then on as "nicodémic relations." This means that the State gave up applying the law and the Church stopped demanding rights.

Emilio Gil Portes. See page for author

Consequences

The first consequence of the Cristero War was the more than 250,000 deaths it produced, between civilians and the military.

Restoration of religious services

Once the Mexican government, chaired by Portes Gil, and the Catholic Church established the so-called "nicodémic relations", the conflict diminished in intensity.

Emilio Gil Portes. See page for author

The Church accepted that none of its members, except the archbishop, made statements about the country's politics. Although the Constitution was not changed, religious services were resumed and the limitation on the number of priests was removed, as well as the license required to officiate.

Population movements

As in any warlike conflict, the Cristero War provoked many population movements.

These migrations were both internal, with many Mexicans fleeing from rural areas to cities, and external. In this last aspect, it is estimated that more than a million people moved to the United States.

On the other hand, after the peace negotiations, the Church excommunicated many of the Catholics who did not want to lay down their arms.

Creation of the Sinarquista political movement of Mexico

As has been pointed out, not all Catholics accepted the establishment of "nicodémic relations" with the state. From these sectors of discontent a radical movement was born, especially in Guanajuato, Michoacán, Querétaro and Jalisco.

This group tried to continue the Cristero struggle, albeit in a peaceful way. In May 1937, this movement led to the creation of the Sinarquista National Union, an organization with an ideology that united Catholicism, anti-communism, nationalism and fascism.

Main characters

Plutarco Elías Calles

Plutarco Elías Calles was one of the most important political figures in post-revolutionary Mexico. Not only was he president of the country between 1924 and 1928, but his influence in the following governments was so important that he gave his name to the period known as Maximato, since Calles had proclaimed himself Maximum Head of the Revolution.

The approval of the Calles Law was the final cause of the beginning of the Cristero War, since it reinforced the constitutional articles that reduced the power of the Church.

Emilio Portes Gil

The assassination of Álvaro Obregón caused that, in 1928, the presidency of the country fell to Emilio Portes Gil.

Although his mandate is framed within the Maximato, historians point out that Portes had no interest in continuing the war against the Cristeros. He was the one who organized and led the peace negotiations with the representatives of the Church.

Enrique Gorostieta Velarde

Gorostieta Velarde had acquired military experience during the revolution. Later, she had had some political confrontations with Obregón and Calles. This was used by the National League for the Defense of Religious Freedom (LNDLR) to hire him to lead their troops.

General Enrique Gorostieta. User: Tatehuari on April 30, 2007

The military man was assassinated in Jalisco only 20 days before the peace accords were signed. According to some authors, the government organized the ambush that ended his life, since Gorostieta was against the negotiations that were taking place.

Bishop José Mora y del Río

José Mora y del Río was the Bishop of Mexico City during the Christian period. Together with the Bishop of Tabasco, Pascual Díaz Barreto, he was one of the protagonists of the peace negotiations.

Victoriano Ramírez López, «el Catorce»

One of the most important Cristeros military leaders was Victoriano Ramírez López, known as “el Catorce”.

This soldier joined the Cristero ranks from the first moment and was one of the few who remained in the fight after May 1927. His squad was called "Dragones del Catorce" and stood out for its fierce resistance to the government army.

"El Catorce" died at the hands of other Cristeros, since he showed many discrepancies with generals such as Gorostieta Velarde.

References

1. Cisneros, Stefany. Cristero War in Mexico; characters, causes and consequences. Obtained from mexicodesconocido.com.mx
2. Suarez, Karina. Lay Mexicans against religious Mexicans: 90 years since the end of the Cristero War. Obtained from elpais.com
3. EcuRed. Cristero War. Obtained from ecured.cu
4. Garcia, Elizabeth and McKinley, Mike. History of the Cristiada. Retrieved from laits.utexas.edu
5. World Atlas. What Was The Cristero War ?. Retrieved from worldatlas.com
6. Revolvy. Cristero War. Retrieved from revolvy.com
7. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. Cristero Rebellion. Retrieved from encyclopedia.com