GENERATION OF 98: HISTORICAL CONTEXT, CHARACTERISTICS AND GENRES - LITERATURE - 2025

The generation of '98 is the name given to a group of intellectuals of Spanish literature who redefined the concept of "Spanish" in their literary production. Towards the year 1898, a national social, economic and political crisis intensified in Spain.

On the social side, Catalan and Basque movements pressed with unions led by anarchists and socialists. Furthermore, the large number of changes to the Spanish throne produced political instability. This instability led to Spain losing the war in 1898 and, with it, its last colonies (Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines).

Ramón del Valle Inclán, representative of the generation of 98

In addition to all this, the country faced a process of decline in the infrastructure of its cities and a paralysis of its scarce industrial park. This state of affairs deeply affected all fellow citizens. In the midst of this chaos, this generation of intellectuals rose up to demand a return to the values ​​of the previous Spain.

They believed that only a reassessment of the Spanish national character would bring the country out of its prostration. They also advocated a re-establishment of medieval and Golden Age authors as literary models, and criticized the Restoration period and the philosophical ideas of Nietzsche, Schopenhauer, and Kierkegaard.

Thus, the writings of this group covered all genres of Spanish national literature. These reflected an intellectual search for truth rather than aesthetic pleasure.

Through their movement, they led Spain to a position of intellectual and literary prominence that it had not held for centuries. The generation of 98 is considered today as the best of the late nineteenth century.

Historic context

Political and social instability

For much of the late nineteenth century the Spanish government was subjected to frequent political changes that weakened. These changes were forced especially by the constant wars in their colonies.

On the other hand, the former colonial power faced economic problems. Among those problems were the budget deficit, rising unemployment and food shortages.

Likewise, there were internal frictions between political forces that wanted total control. In a short time, important events followed, such as the resignation of King Amadeo I, the establishment of the first Republic and the return of the Bourbons.

All these changes did not provide any solution to the problems. On the contrary, they aggravated them with the formation of pro-independence groups and factions that introduced a climate of social unrest.

Among those groups were the Basque Country and the Catalan independentists. These movements, born at the end of the 19th century, questioned the existence of a single Spanish nation.

They based their arguments on the assertion that Catalonia and the Basque Country were nations and that, therefore, they had the right to self-government. These movements demanded from autonomy to independence or separatism.

Economic debacle

At the beginning of the 19th century, most of the Spanish colonies had become independent from the Spanish Empire. By the end of that century, only Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines were still colonies.

Cuba and Puerto Rico, both lucrative for Spain, based their economy on the export of sugar cane and tobacco. The Cuban island even became a world power producing sugar

However, the strict tariff regulations dictated from Madrid turned these territories into "strangled markets." Under this condition, these colonies could not trade their products freely without paying high taxes to the Spanish Crown. This situation of economic vassalage brought great income.

Then, this almost exclusive dependence on the colonies that still remained made Spain not join the nascent Industrial Revolution, unlike its European neighbors.

Spanish American War

The Spanish-American War lasted from April to August 1898. It consisted of a series of rapid military campaigns through which the United States seized control of Spanish colonies overseas.

Previously, the United States had sent the warship USS Maine to Cuba as a sign of goodwill. Its explosion and subsequent sinking unleashed US military intervention.

The hostilities between the Antillean island and its metropolis, Spain, were affecting its economic interests. Therefore, they were at that time mediating diplomatically in the Cuba-Spain conflict.

So, they blamed the Spanish for this explosion and demanded that Spain give Cuba independence. Faced with the refusal, the United States recognized the independence of Cuba and conflict with Spain broke out.

Finally, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris between the United States and Spain, the war ended. This agreement resulted in the independence of Cuba, although it was under North American tutelage.

Additionally, Guam, the Philippines and Puerto Rico came under absolute US control, which became their colonial dependencies.

Characteristics of the literature of the generation of 98

Definition of national identity

The generation of '98 made a clear distinction between real and troubled Spain and official fake Spain. His concern was the restoration of the country's identity. This originated a debate known as "being from Spain."

Return to the evocative Spanish landscape

The return to the landscape is reflected in Castilla. Its landscapes, its towns, its tradition and its language are revalued. Many writers of the generation of 98 spent time traveling in Spain writing about their travels.

Break with previous models

The classic molds with which the different literary genres were pigeonholed were broken and renewed. Examples of this are Impressionist novels, which experiment with time and space.

Rejection of realism

The aesthetics of realism was rejected by this movement. The use of the language changed to a short syntax, closer to common people. Folkloric and traditional words of the peasants were also recovered.

Communion of objectives

All the members of the generation of 98 shared the thesis of regenerationism. According to this theory, the causes of Spain's decline as a nation had to be investigated scientifically and objectively correctly.

Rescue of values

This group of intellectuals achieved in Spain an awareness of foreign literary trends. This made it easier for Spaniards to evaluate their values ​​in the context of a modern world.

Literary genres

Lyric

Through lyrical poetry, the members of the generation of 98 expressed their philosophical concerns. Among these were the search for faith, the anguish of death and the desire for eternity.

Theater

The Spanish theater was modernized by the generation of 98. The objective was to place it at the level of the European theater of the early twentieth century. For this they appealed to the economy of words and the elimination of rhetorical and scenic ornament.

Novel

The generation of '98 managed to overcome Realism and thus marked the beginning of a renewal in the novelistic field. To achieve this, they made the themes focus on existential problems.

Likewise, they managed to make the protagonists be marked by pessimism. In the same way, they achieved a novel with a fragmented structure, novels based on episodes where the characters appear and disappear.

Test

The essay was the most popular medium in the early 19th century. It was the vehicle of choice for the generation of 98 to convey their philosophy. Thus, through this, topics such as religion, death, the situation of the country and its destiny were addressed.

Authors and works

Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936)

His full name was Miguel De Unamuno y Jugo, and he was born in Bilbao to Basque parents. He was an educator, philosopher, and author whose essays were highly influential in the early 20th century in Spain.

Unamuno was an existentialist who was largely concerned with the tension between intellect and emotion, faith and reason. At the heart of his outlook on life was his personal and passionate yearning for immortality.

According to this author, man's hunger to live after death is constantly denied by his reason, and can only be satisfied by faith. The resulting tension turns into incessant agony.

Although he wrote poetry and plays, he was most influential as an essayist and novelist. In his essays the common theme was the need to preserve personal integrity in the face of social conformity, fanaticism, and hypocrisy.

Of his production, we can mention Around casticismo (1895), Life of Don Quijote and Sancho (1905), The agony of Christianity (1925), Abel Sánchez: a story of passion (1917), Love and pedagogy (1902), among others.

Ramón del Valle Inclán (1869-1936)

Ramón María del Valle Inclán, considered the most exceptional and radical playwright of the time, was a Spanish playwright, novelist and member of the generation of '98. He was a key player in the renewal of Spanish theater.

From its catalog of titles, Feminine-Six love stories (1894), Epitalamio-Love stories (1897), Ashes: Drama in three acts (1889), Satan (1900) and La Marquesa Rosalinda (1913) stand out.

Around 1900 he began to publish his "sonatas" in the magazine Los Mondays del Imparcial. This was the first appearance of the Marqués de Bradomín, one of his characters.

All his sonatas were published as books: Autumn Sonata (1902), Summer Sonata (1902), Spring Sonata (1904), and Winter Sonata (1905). These books are the most prominent example of modernist prose in Spanish.

At the end of 1926 Valle-Inclán published Tirano Banderas, considered his best narrative work. In 1927 he participated in the creation of the Republican Alliance party. His last years were spent traveling and in intense political activity.

Pío Baroja (1872-1956)

Pío Baroja y Nessi was another Spanish writer belonging to the generation of 98. He was also a doctor and an excellent essayist. Baroja favored storytelling, but also produced essays and some plays.

A distinctive feature of Baroja's work was to group his novels into trilogies and tetralogies. So far, it has not been possible to find out the reason or criteria used by the author for such action.

In addition, Barojian work was characterized by the apparent thematic disconnection between the novels belonging to a certain trilogy or tetralogy. During his career this artist produced nine trilogies and two tetralogies.

His novelistic work is made up of The Fantastic Life, The Struggle for Life, The Past, The Race, The Cities, The Agonies of Our Time, The Dark Forest, The Lost Youth and Saturnalia, and the tetralogies Basque Earth and The Sea.

José Martínez Ruiz «Azorín» (1874-1967)

His full name was José Martínez Ruiz. However, he was universally known by his literary pseudonym Azorín. He also signed some of his writings under the names of Candido and Ahriman.

José Martínez Ruiz was a Spanish essayist, columnist, playwright, novelist and literary critic who was also a member of the so-called generation of 98.

His literary production was focused on essays and novels. However, she also participated in theater.

Of his very extensive work, the beginnings of Buscapiés (1894), social notes (1895), literary anarchists (1895) and Charivari (1897) stand out.

Towards the end of his life, Spain Clara (1966), Los Médicos (1966) Ni si, ni no (1966), Ultramarinos, (1966), La amada España (1967) and Critique of Nearby Years (1967) stand out.

Antonio Machado

Antonio Machado y Ruiz was a prominent Spanish poet and playwright of the Spanish generation of '98. According to critics, Machado is among the best poets of the 20th century in Spain.

In 1902 he collected his verses in the work Solitudes: Poesías. Here he revealed his penchant for the thoughtful and the spiritual. In 1907 he published an expanded version: Solitudes, galleries and other poems.

Machado published another great collection of poetry in 1912: Campos de Castilla. In this work the author addressed the problem of the destiny of Spain and remembered his late wife with love.

In addition, other works in his collection of poems include Selected Pages (1917), Complete Poems (1917), Poems (1917), New Songs (1924), Complete Poems (1928), Complete Poems (1933) and others.

Also, he wrote Juan de Mairena (1936) and Los Complementos (1957). These prose works did not have the success of poetry.

Likewise, the plays Desdichas de la fortuna or Julianillo Valcárcel (1926) and Juan de Mañara (1927) are authored.

References

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